• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.4
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• pp.526-535
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• 2022

Background: During the pathogenesis of tendinopathy, the chronic inflammation caused by the injury and apoptosis leads to the generation of scars. Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) is extracted from ginseng and has anti-inflammatory effects. Rg1 is a unique phytoestrogen that can activate the estrogen response element. This research aimed to explore whether Rg1 can function in the process of tendon repair through the estrogen receptor. Methods: In this research, the effects of Rg1 were evaluated in tenocytes and in a rat model of Achilles tendinitis (AT). Protein levels were shown by western blotting. qRT-PCR was employed for evaluating mRNA levels. Cell proliferation was evaluated through EdU assay and cell migration was evaluated by transwell assay and scratch test assay. Results: Rg1 up-regulated the expression of matrix-related factors and function of tendon in AT rat model. Rg1 reduced early inflammatory response and apoptosis in the tendon tissue of AT rat model. Rg1 promoted tenocyte migration and proliferation. The effects of Rg1 on tenocytes were inhibited by ICI182780. Rg1 activates the insulin-like growth factor-I receptor (IGF1R) and MAPK signaling pathway. Conclusion: Rg1 promotes injured tendon healing in AT rat model through IGF1R and MAPK signaling pathway activation.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.21 no.4
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• pp.276-281
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• 2013

This study was conducted to compare the contents of ginsenoside according the water extract conditions of red ginseng. In method A, red ginseng extract was prepared at $75^{\circ}C$ for 18 hours by 1 time extraction, and method B, the preparation was done at $85^{\circ}C$ for 18 hours by 1 time extraction. In method C, the primary extract prepared at $75^{\circ}C$ for 9 hours was blended with the secondary extract prepared by re-extracting the red ginseng residue obtained after the primary extraction, at $85^{\circ}C$ for 9 hours. Method D was the same procedure as method C but the extraction temperature for the primary extraction was $85^{\circ}C$ and that for the secondary extraction was $95^{\circ}C$. The contents of total and $Rb_1$, $Rg_1$ and $Rg_3$ ginsenoside were highest in Method C. The content of prosapogenin (ginsenoside $Rg_2$, $Rg_3$, $Rb_1$ and $Rb_2$) was highest in Method B. There was no consistent tendency in Brix, pH, Hue value and absorbance among extraction methods.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.43 no.3
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• pp.475-481
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• 2019

Background: The ginsenoside Rg1 has been shown to exert various pharmacological activities with health benefits. Previously, we have reported that Rg1 promoted myogenic differentiation and myotube growth in C2C12 myoblasts. In this study, the in vivo effect of Rg1 on fiber-type composition and oxidative metabolism in skeletal muscle was examined. Methods: To examine the effect of Rg1 on skeletal muscle, 3-month-old mice were treated with Rg1 for 5 weeks. To assess muscle strength, grip strength tests were performed, and the lower hind limb muscles were harvested, followed by various detailed analysis, such as histological staining, immunoblotting, immunostaining, and real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. In addition, to verify the in vivo data, primary myoblasts isolated from mice were treated with Rg1, and the Rg1 effect on myotube growth was examined by immunoblotting and immunostaining analysis. Results: Rg1 treatment increased the expression of myosin heavy chain isoforms characteristic for both oxidative and glycolytic muscle fibers; increased myofiber sizes were accompanied by enhanced muscle strength. Rg1 treatment also enhanced oxidative muscle metabolism with elevated oxidative phosphorylation proteins. Furthermore, Rg1-treated muscles exhibited increased levels of anabolic S6 kinase signaling. Conclusion: Rg1 improves muscle functionality via enhancing muscle gene expression and oxidative muscle metabolism in mice.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.40 no.3
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• pp.237-244
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• 2016

Background: Ginsenoside Rg3 and arginine-fructose (Arg-Fru) are known as the hypotensive compounds of Panax ginseng; however, their efficacy on antihypertension has not been reported yet to our best knowledge. Thus, hypotensive components-enriched fraction of red ginseng (HCEF-RG) was prepared from fine root concentrate (FR) and their antihypertensive effects were investigated in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Methods: Male SHRs were divided into six groups: control (Wistar Kyoto, SHR); FR 500; FR 1,000; HCEF-RG 500; and HCEF-RG 1,000; samples (mg/kg body weight) were orally administered every day for 8 wk. Blood pressure was monitored at 1 wk, 2 wk, 3 wk, 4 wk, 6 wk, and 8 wk by tail cuff method. At 8 wk after samples administration, mice were killed for the measurement of renin activity (RA), angiotensin-I converting enzyme inhibition, angiotensin II, and nitric oxide (NO) levels in plasma. Results: HCEF-RG with four-fold more Rg3 and 24-fold more Arg-Fru contents was successfully prepared from reacted mixtures of FR and persimmon vinegar (12 times against FR, v/v) at $80^{\circ}C$ for 18 h. Both FR 1,000 and HCEF-RG 1,000 showed lowered systolic blood pressure than SHR control group and HCEF-RG 1,000 group exhibited a significant decrease in diastolic blood pressure. RA was significantly lowered in all treated groups, while angiotensin II did not affect by FR and HCEF-RG treatment. However, angiotensin-I converting enzyme inhibition and NO in FR 1,000 and HCEF-RG 1,000 were significantly increased compared with SHR control group. Conclusion: HCEF-RG is more effective and useful for alleviating hypertension than FR, implying the health benefit of Rg3 and Arg-Fru.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.22 no.3
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• pp.223-230
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• 2014

This study was performed to enhance contents of low molecular ginsenoside using steaming and fermentation process in low quality fresh ginseng. For increase in contents of Rg2, Rg3, Rh2 and CK in low quality fresh ginseng, a steaming process was applied at $90^{\circ}C$ for 12 hr which was followed by fermentation process at Lactobacillus rhamnosus HK-9 incubated at $36^{\circ}C$ for 72 h. The contents of ginsenoside Rg1, Rb1, Rc, Re and Rd were decreased with the steaming associated with fermentation process but ginsenoside Rg2, Rg3, Rh2 and CK increased after process. It was found that under the steaming associated with fermentation process, low molecule ginsenosides such as Rg2, Rg3, Rh2 and CK were increased as 3.231 mg/g, 2.585 mg/g and 1.955 m/g and 2.478 mg/g, respectively. In addition, concentration of benzo[${\alpha}$]pyrene in extracts of the low quality fresh ginseng treated by the complex process was 0.11 ppm but it was 0.22 ppm when it was treated with the steaming process. This result could be caused by that the most efficiently breakdown of 1,2-glucoside and 1,4-glucoside linkage to backbone of ginsenosides by steaming associated with fermentation process. This results indicate that steaming process and fermenration process can increase in contents of Rg2, Rg3, Rh2 and CK in low quality fresh ginseng.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.45 no.5
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• pp.610-616
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• 2021

Background: Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) acts as a master switch for inflammatory responses. Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) which is an active ingredient of Panax ginseng Meyer (Araliaceae) is known to possess various therapeutic effects. However, a modulatory effect of Rg3 on TSLP expression in the inflammatory responses remains poorly understood. Methods: We investigated antiinflammatory effects of Rg3 on an in vitro model using HMC-1 cells stimulated by PMA plus calcium ionophore (PMACI), as well as an in vivo model using PMA-induced mouse ear edema. TSLP and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or real-time PCR analysis. Murine double minute 2 (MDM2) and hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) expression levels were detected using Western blot analysis. Results: Rg3 treatment restrained the production and mRNA expression levels of TSLP and VEGF in activated HMC-1 cells. Rg3 down-regulated the MDM2 expression level increased by PMACI stimulation. The HIF1α expression level was also reduced by Rg3 in activated HMC-1 cells. In addition, Rg3-administered mice showed the decreased redness and ear thickness in PMA-irritated ear edema. Rg3 inhibited the TSLP and VEGF levels in the serum and ear tissue homogenate. Moreover, the MDM2 and HIF1α expression levels in the ear tissue homogenate were suppressed by Rg3. Conclusion: Taken together, the current study identifies new mechanistic evidence about MDM2/HIF1α pathway in the antiinflammatory effect of Rg3, providing a new effective therapeutic strategy for the treatment of skin inflammatory diseases.

• Applied Biological Chemistry
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• v.23 no.4
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• pp.206-210
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• 1980

The minor components of $saponin-ginsenoside-Rf,\;-Rg_2\;and\;-Rh_1$ were isolated from Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer by preparative, semi-preparative and analtical high performance liquid chromatography. The rapid method developed in this work was proved to be very effective in separation and isolation of these minor ginsenosides. A further isolation was achieved by using the recycling technique.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.42 no.4
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• pp.470-475
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• 2018

Background: It was previously found that Korean Red Ginseng water extract (KRGE) inhibits the histamine-induced itch signaling pathway in peripheral sensory neurons. Thus, in the present study, we investigated whether KRGE inhibited another distinctive itch pathway induced by chloroquine (CQ); a representative histamine-independent pathway mediated by MrgprA3 and TRPA1. Methods: Intracellular calcium changes were measured by the calcium imaging technique in the HEK293T cells transfected with both MrgprA3 and TRPA1 ("MrgprA3/TRPA1"), and in primary culture of mouse dorsal root ganglia (DRGs). Mouse scratching behavior tests were performed to verify proposed antipruritic effects of KRGE and ginsenoside Rg3. Results: CQ-induced $Ca^{2+}$ influx was strongly inhibited by KRGE ($10{\mu}g/mL$) in MrgprA3/TRPA1, and notably ginsenoside Rg3 dose-dependently suppressed CQ-induced $Ca^{2+}$ influx in MrgprA3/TRPA1. Moreover, both KRGE ($10{\mu}g/mL$) and Rg3 ($100{\mu}M$) suppressed CQ-induced $Ca^{2+}$ influx in primary culture of mouse DRGs, indicating that the inhibitory effect of KRGE was functional in peripheral sensory neurons. In vivo tests revealed that not only KRGE (100 mg) suppressed CQ-induced scratching in mice [bouts of scratching: $274.0{\pm}51.47$ (control) vs. $104.7{\pm}17.39$ (KRGE)], but also Rg3 (1.5 mg) oral administration significantly reduced CQ-induced scratching as well [bouts of scratching: $216.8{\pm}33.73$ (control) vs.$115.7{\pm}20.94$ (Rg3)]. Conclusion: The present study verified that KRGE and Rg3 have a strong antipruritic effect against CQ-induced itch. Thus, KRGE is as a promising antipruritic agent that blocks both histamine-dependent and -independent itch at peripheral sensory neuronal levels.

• Applied Biological Chemistry
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• v.23 no.4
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• pp.222-227
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• 1980

Ginsenosides in two parts (central fart and epidermis-cortex) of main body of Korea ginseng root (purple stem variety) were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography in relation to purple color intensity on stem. Pattern similarity of saponin by simple correlation of ginsenosides between the same or different parts of root in the same or different group showed that stem color was not associated with saponin pattern in two parts. Saponin pattern was slightly different between different parts regardless of stem color. The order of each ginsenoside content was $Rg_1>Re>Rb_1>Rb_2>Rc>Rg_2{\geq}Rd>Rf$ in epidermis-cortex while $Rg_1>Re{\geq}Rg_2{\geq}Rb_1{\gg}Rb_2>Rc{\geq}Rd>Rf$ in central part.

• Natural Product Sciences
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• v.21 no.2
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• pp.93-97
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• 2015

The purpose of this study was to develop a new ginseng (Panax ginseng) flower buds extract with the high concentration of ginsenoside Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, Rh1 and F4, the Red ginseng special component. Chemical transformation from the ginseng saponin glycosides to the prosapogenin was analyzed by the HPLC. The ginseng flower buds were processed at the several treatment conditions of the ultrasonication (Oscillator 600W, Vibrator 600W) and vinegar (about 14% acidity). The result of UVGFB-480 was the butanol fraction of ginseng flower buds that had been processed with ultrasonication and vinegar for 480 minutes gained the highest amount of ginsenoside Rg5 (3.548%), Rh1 (2.037%), Rk1 (1.821%), Rg3 (1.580%) and F4 (1.535%). The ginsenoside Rg5 of UVGFB-480 was found to contain 14.3 times as high as ginseng flower buds extracts (GFB, 0.249%).