• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.36 no.6
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• pp.651-661
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• 2022

Plants social network analysis, which combines plants society and social network analyses, is a new research method for understanding plants society. This study was conducted to investigate the relationship between species, using plant social network analysis targeting Taejongdae in Busan, and build basic data for management. Taejongdae, located in the warm temperate forest in Korea, is a representative coastal forest of Busan Metropolitan City, and the Pinus thunbergii-Eurya japonicacommunity is widely distributed. This study set up 100 quadrats (size of 100m²each) in Taejongdae to investigate the species that emerged and analyzed the interspecies association focusing on major species. Based on the results, a sociogram was created using the Gephi 0.9.2, and the network centrality and structure were analyzed. The results showed that the frequency of appearance was high in the order of P. thunbergii, E. japonica, Quercus serrata, Sorbus alnifolia, Ligustrum japonicum, and Styrax japonicusand that many evergreen broad-leaved trees appeared due to the environmental characteristics of the site. The plants social network of Taejongdae was composed of a small-scale network with 50 nodes and 172 links and was divided into 4 groups through modularization. The succession sere identified through a sociogram confirmed that the group that include P. thunbergiiand E. japonicawould progress to a deciduous broadleaf community dominated by Q. serrataand Carpinus tschonoskii, using hub nodes such as Prunus serrulataf. spontaneaand Toxicodendron trichocarpum. Another succession sere was highly likely to progress to an evergreen broad-leaved community dominated by Machilus thunbergiiand Neolitsea sericea, using M. thunbergiias a medium. In some areas, a transition to a deciduous broad-leaved community dominated by Celtis sinensis, Q. variabilisand Zelkova serratausing Lindera obtusilobaand C. sinensisas hub nodes was expected.

• Journal of Ecology and Environment
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• v.29 no.6
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• pp.593-602
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• 2006

Species composition, spatial distribution of major species, diameter and height classes distribution, and species diversity were .analyzed in the Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora, hereafter referred as pine) forest in the permanent quadrats, which were designed for Long Term Ecological Research (LTER). Collected data were compared with those from the other areas including urban center (Mt. Inwang and Hongneung) and boundary areas (Mts. Acha, Bukhan, Bulam, Cheonggye, Daemo, and Surak), and natural areas (Mts. Seolak, Songni, and Wolak) to clarify the ecological characteristics of pine forest on Mt. Nam. Species composition of pine forest on Mt. Nam showed a similarity with those of urban center but did a little and big differences with those on urban boundary and natural areas, respectively. Such differences that pine forest on Mt. Nam showed, were usually due to Styrax japonicus, Sorbus alnifolia, Oplismenus undulatifolius, Ailanthus altissima, Ageratina altissima and so on, which showed higher coverage there. Predicted from diameter and height classes distribution of tree species, pine forest on Mt. Nam showed a possibility to be replaced by a S. japonica. Considered that this replacer species is not only a sub-tree but also shade intolerant, such successional trend could be interpreted as a sort of retrogressive succession. Those on urban boundary and natural areas showed a difference by displaying probabilities to be maintained as themselves as an edaphic climax or succeeded to oak forests. Species diversity of pine forest on Mt. Nam was lower than those in urban boundary and natural areas due to excessive dominance of several species, which led to different species composition from the other areas. Plants, which produced the differences, were species that flourishes in the polluted industrial area (S. japonica and S. alnifolia), favors the disturbed site (O. undulatifolius), and exotic species (A. altissima and Eupatorium rugosum). Those results reflects that pine forest of Mt. Nam was exposed on severe environmental pollution and excessive human interferences.

• The Korean Journal of Ecology
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• v.22 no.3
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• pp.145-153
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• 1999

Authors report the changes of the community structure and secondary succession after fire in Mt. Samma (333 m). Approximately six ha of the red pine (Pinus densiflora) forest and its floor vegetation were burned and cutted down. The vegetation and soil properties were investigated in the burned and unburned sites from April to October, 1998. The dominant species based on SDR₃ in the burned site were Lespedeza cyrtobotrya (96.87), Quercus serrata (77.90), Cyperus amuricus (46.22) and Miscanthus sinensis var. purpurascens (38.33), whereas the dominant species in the unburned site were Pinus densiflora (100.00) and Q. variabilis (66.10) at the tree layer, Q. serrata (100.00) and Zanthoxylum schinifolium (29.64) at the shrub layer., and Q. serrata (76.30) and M. sinensis var. purpurascens (72.84) at the herb layer. The biological spectra based on SDR₃ were Th-D₁-R/sub 5/-e for the burned and H (M)-D₁-R/sub 5/-e type for the unburned site, respectively. The index of similarity (CCs) between the burned and unburned sites was 0.41. The degree of succession (DS) were 609 for the burned and 1168 for the unburned site, respectively. The species diversity (H) and evenness indices (e) of the burned site were lower than those of the unburned site, but the dominance indices (C) was higher in the burned site. In the analysis of soil properties, pH, the content of NO₃/sup -/-N, available phosphrous, and exchangeable cations (K/sup +/, Ca/sup 2+/, Na/sup +/, Mg/sup 2+/) in the burned site were higher than those in the unburned site, whereas the contents of organic matter, total carbon, total nitrogen and NH₄/sup +/-N were lower in the burned site. The results show that dominant species in the burned site change from Miscanthus-Lespedeza→Lespedeza→Quercus and finally to Quercus forest, and the changes of soil properties also affect the early vegetational succession after fire.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.110 no.3
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• pp.341-354
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• 2021

A large part of Gapyeong is occupied by Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) and Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) plantations. Abies holophylla stands are scattered throughout Gapyeong, but little information on their distribution is available. This study explored the potential of succession from planted species to native A. holophylla in plantations. Trees were inventoried and regeneration of A. holoplhylla and stand management history were examined in Korean pine, Japanese larch, and A. holophylla-dominated stands. The importance percentage of A. holophylla was the highest among species with a range of 36.1% to 79.1% in all stands and the density of A. holophylla in understory (DBH <2 cm or <1.3 m height) ranged from 50 to 5,820 trees ha^-1. Non-metric multidimensional scaling classified stands into four types, AN, AP, AM, and P. The AN type showed a reverse J-shape DBH distribution, which was similar to that in natural A. holophylla stands. Both AP and AM types included Korean pine plantations with A. holophylla seed trees within stands. For AP, A. holophylla competed with planted species in overstory and deciduous broadleaved species in understory. The AM type was once thinned from below, thus stem density in the mid DBH classes was lower than upper or lower DBH classes. The P type consisted of plantations without A. holophylla seed trees. However, understory regeneration of A. holophylla was abundant through seed supply from A. holophylla in adjacent stands. Plantations with A. holophylla seed trees within or in adjacent stands showed vigorous natural regeneration of A. holophylla, highlighting the potential for succession from planted species to native A. holophylla in the Gapyeong area. Further studies can help develop techniques to restore plantations to native species-dominated natural stands using ecological succession.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.27 no.6
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• pp.733-744
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• 2013

This study was launched in order to collect basic data such as emergent species, a succession trend based on the actual vegetation at the ridge from Haneoryoung to Daetjae, thereby designating 46 quadrats($10m{\times}10m:100m^2$). As a result of classification by TWINSPAN, the plant community was categorized into eight different communities, such as Pinus densiflora-Quercus mongolica-Fraxinus rhynchophylla, P. densiflora-Q. mongolica, Ulmus davidiana var. japonica, Q. mongolica-Deciduous Broad-leaved, Q. mongolica, Q. mongolica-Betula davurica, Q. mongolica-F. sieboldiana, and Larix kaempferi. An analyzation of each communities indicated that P. densiflora dominant community will change into a Q. mongolica dominant community if there are no outside artificial disturbances. U. davidiana var. japonica community maintains its present condition, because it doesn't appear to be a competitive species. In the case of Q. mongolica dominant community, if nothing comes in a competitive species against Q. monglica, it is possible to succeed to a muture stand. These communities with competitive species such as F. rhynchophylla, B. davurica that do not emerge at a canopy layer will gradually progress to the Deciduous Broad-leaved community. With regard to the species diversity index per unit ($400m^2$), succession processing communities (P. densiflora: 1.0477~1.1283) tend to be higher than succession-processed communities (Q. mongolica dominant: 0.6446~0.9424).

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.23 no.1
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• pp.56-65
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• 2009

In Korea, Red pine(Pinus densiflora) stands at a very important place, historically, culturally, and emotionally and it is one of the tree species that can produce domestic timber as forest resources economically. The growing space for Red pine forest in Korea is gradually reducing while the space for deciduous tree forests including oak series is gradually increasing. Thus, it is required that the research work should be done on renewal for pine forest retention and its related forest management practices. This research aims at developing stable, sustainable management forests and inducing nature renewal by grasping growth environment and succession process through the pattern of stand and structure analysis of the red pine(Pinus densiflora) for central region. The pine forests in central region were classified into four communities, such as Acer pseudo-sibolianum, Quercus acutissima, Lindera erythrocarpa, and Pinus densiflora and they are showing different characteristics by pattern according to their growing district. There appeared a lot of red pines in the upper layer, but there existed high weight of broad-leaved forest tree species, such as oak series in the middle layer and the appearance of the red pine was meager in the lower layer. Therefore, it appears that the red pine has a high influential ecological strength in terms of correlativity; however, if the red pine in tree layer is dead by aging in nature state with the lapse of time, it is considered that oak species, such as Quercus mongolica, Quercus variabilis, and Quercus serrata will be dominant below sub-tree layer. In addition, there appear differences in characteristics and growth pattern of the red pine forest depending on stand pattern, so it is considered that a differential application method should be employed in the pine forest management.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.88 no.3
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• pp.342-351
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• 1999

The forest vegetation developing on Mt. Inwang, an isolated forestland in Seoul, Korea was analyzed phytosociologically and its spatial distribution mapped out. Using the vegetation map, The characteristics of landscape structures in terms of the number and size of patches are discussed. Forest vegetation of the study area was classified into ten communities, ten groups, and eighty subgroups. Landscape element types were classified into secondary forests, relict communities, introduced plantations, and other elements including urbanized area. Pinus densiflora community, natural forest and Robinia pseudo-acacia community, plantation, formed matrix and some secondary forest elements, relict communities and the ether plantations of small size tended to distribute as small patches in such matrix. The number of patches per unit area in secondary forest elements was more than that in plantation elements. The result in patch size was vice versa. The vascular plant species richness of the landscape element types in Mt. Inwang was found to he positively related to their size. As the results of landscape ecological analyses, it was estimated that differentiation of patches recognized in community level would be related to human interference a and those in subordinate levels to natural process such as progression of succession.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.31 no.2
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• pp.174-187
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• 2017

For the purpose of evaluating the restoration effect of vegetation, in this study, the areas where vegetation was restored had been monitored for 6 years, from 2008 to 2013. The areas were restored through some techniques by utilizing forest resources and nearby forest resources: biotope restoration method, forest topsoil paving method and small diameter trees planting method. Biotope restoration method is indicated the most similar properties to the existing natural forest just after they were restored because the forest likely to be deteriorated was transplanted. Forest topsoil paving method is expected that long-time will be taken for plants to grow to form the tree layer. However, the method is expected to acquire high restore the places of empty lands such as cutting areas. Community planting method is coverage can be increased for short time, relying on the sizes of planted trees, and the tree layer can be formed. Consequently, this method is expected to create high effect if the sizes of trees are considered after the right judgement of candidate site for restoration. This study is meaningful in that each type of restoration is monitored to observe the change of triggered by the succession process to forest. The study results can play as the reference data which can be utilized and applied to the area requiring vegetation restoration or to the area facing the damage of forest resources.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.112 no.3
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• pp.331-339
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• 2023

This study was conducted to identify seed inflow characteristics according to harvest typeand to provide basic data for developing a regeneration technology for secondary growth forests in Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora) succession forest formation by natural regeneration. Experimental sites were established by applying seed tree (single and group) and clear-cutting methods (10- 20- 30-m strip and 20- 30- 40-m patch). The seed inflow characteristics of the natural regeneration site were analyzed for 6 years from 2014. Most seeds were flowed to the regeneration stand from October to November. In years with good seed fructification, more than 80% were flowed in October. The average annual seed inflow by harvest type was highest in the seed tree area (296,000 seeds/ha/yr), followed by the 20-m patch clear-cutting area (291,000 seeds/ha/yr) and 10-m strip clear-cutting area (281,000 seeds/ha/yr). The distribution uniformity of seed inflow according to treatment was analyzed in the order of the 20-m strip clear-cutting area (52.2), 20-m patch clear-cutting area (52.9), and 10-m strip clear-cutting area (56.1). As a result, the 10-m strip and 20-m patch clear-cutting areas with relatively small harvest areas showed high seed inflow and distribution uniformity.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Environmental Restoration Technology
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• v.7 no.2
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• pp.75-86
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• 2004

This study aims to figure out ecological characteristic of natural forests focusing on vegetation as a way of ecological renovation for the restoration of naturalness for golf courses that were constructed in the Country and to present vegetation models and appropriate tree species for the purpose. The study site is P golf club, which is located in Gapyong-gun, Kyeonggi Province. The site is within a forest where the grade from the natural ecology map is the first one and the level from the green index accounts for the eight, thus showing a typical environment for a golf course in terms of location. The location of the site explains a reason for restoration. The major substance of the study is to conduct ecological evaluation of vegetation structures around and inside the golf course and to present a vegetation model. In order to evaluate the ecological characteristics of the vegetation structures, the analysis of the study covered succession stages, multi-layer vegetation structures and species diversity. Plant communities that have high species diversity were selected for the vegetation model and proper density and species were proposed considering the number of species and individuals and distances between trees. The vegetation restoration model targets succession into an oak forest. Within a unit of 100 $m^2$, the recommended model include a tall-tree layer with 11 trees such as Quercus serrata and Quercus mongolica, a sub-tall-tree layer with 12 trees including Quercus mongolica, Quercus serrata, Prunus sargentii, Fraxinus rhynchophylla and Acer pseudo sieboldianum, a shrub layer with 32 trees from 16 species, and a grass layer with a cover rate of 45 %. The proposed vegetation restoration model needs to apply to : 1) damaged natural forests by the construction of golf courses; 2) boundaries between golf courses and surrounding forests; 3) buffer zones; 4) open spaces in between courses; and 5) areas between greens and tees where open spaces are available in a mass. In conclusion, one of the most important factors in presenting a vegetation model for the restoration of naturalness in the golf course and other damaged forests is to provide multi-layer vegetation structures that are composed of native species. As for the specific application for the site, it is recommended to manage the vegetation in such a way that the environment of the site can have a similar environment to the surrounding forest which is expected to succeed into an oaks-dominant one.