• The Southeast Asian review
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• v.21 no.2
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• pp.43-75
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• 2011

The article focuses on the impact and Acceptance of Hindu culture in Modern Southeast Asian Buddhism. The purpose of this study is to examine critically the influential epic Ramayana on Siam culture, Thai Ramayana version 'Ramakien', reveal instances of Buddhist Modification. The Ramayana by the great sage Valmiki is considered by Indians to be the first great literary work to be produced in India. The influence of this work is to be seen not only through centuries but even in other countries, such as Thailand where there are modified modern versions. In this paper, I have three objectives : (1) I may discuss the epic Ramayana of India gave birth to the Ramakien of Thailand. In modern times Valmiki's epic was made to fit the spiritual trends current in the new Chakri dynasty, which were themselves based on Brahmanic tradition and Theravada buddhism. With regarding to the structure of the Traibhumi cosmography, and the relationship between merit and power implied by this cosmography ranks all beings from demons to deities in a hierarchy of merit which accrues according to karma the actions of past lives. (2) I analyze how to have attempted to dissect the Hindi and Thai version of the Ramayana. The Hindu concept of kingship is also depicted in the life of Rama. The Hindus see in Rama the norm of a true Hindu life characterized by the Caste and Dharma. In Thai transformed version, it does not preach Hindu values of personal or social life. The Ramakien emphasized that the Buddhism were higher than all other laws, and that the King is regarded as the incarnation of Phra Ram, and thus is also the narration of the righteous buddhist ruler. (3) I discuss how cultural or social contexts can influence the structure of the royal Wat. The whole epic was painted by the order of Rama I in the galleries of the Wat Phra Keo. In other words, it is the very centre of the dynastic cult enshrining the Emerald Buddha, the most iconic expression of the Ramakien tradition were officially amalgamated. Rama I was continued the process of elaborating and stabilizing the complex religious pattern, with Buddhism at the pinnacle. My finding will support the idea that the Ramakien is particularly appealing to the Thai people because it presents the image of an ideal king, Rama, who symbolizes the force of virtue or dharma while Thotsakan represents the force of evil. Eventually the force of good prevails. Being Buddhists, the Thai poets bring into the story the Buddhist philosophy(especially, the law of cause and effect, karma). This paper examines the role of the Hindu epic Ramayana in the historical and cultural contact between Hindu India and Buddhist Southeast Asia. It should now be possible to evaluate what elements of Hindu culture were transmitted into Thai through the Rama story.

• Acta Via Serica
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• v.8 no.2
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• pp.125-154
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• 2023

Historically, commerce was a significant factor in the proliferation and development of Buddhism, which is especially manifest in the cult of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. Iconographic and textual evidence testifies that maritime trade on the Indian Ocean played a fundamental role in the formation of Avalokiteśvara worship. The sea was also a major conduit through which elements of the Avalokiteśvara faith were transmitted from India through China to Korea and Japan, the easternmost ends of the Silk Road. These elements include Avalokiteśvara's role as a maritime savior, oceanic symbolism, and the concept of the bodhisattva's worldly abode, Potalaka. Cultic sites dedicated to maritime safety were established at important transport hubs in East Asia. Due to China's strategic location on the Silk Road, as well as its cultural influence, the most important cultic sites were founded in China, first on the Shandong Peninsula, then in the southern Jiangnan region, in present-day Zhejiang Province. Especially notable is the role that Korean seafarers played in this process by assisting monks in search of the Dharma, establishing temples, and transmitting religious beliefs across the ocean. The present study focuses on the role that maritime figures played in the cultural exchanges between Korea, China, and Japan examined through Avalokiteśvara faith. By this, it aims to demonstrate how Korean seafarers inherited and continued the traditional relationship between commerce and Buddhism, while extending the Maritime Silk Road to the "East Asian Mediterranean."

• (The) Research of the performance art and culture
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• no.25
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• pp.291-332
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• 2012

Cham is the Buddhist ritual dance performed at the religious festival of Lamaism. It has been spread and performed at the Lamaist monastery of Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Monglia. The type and style of Cham are differntiated by the region and sect. However, they share the common aim of exorcising all evils symbolized by linga who resists the Buddhist dharma, and thereby celebrating the victory of Buddhism. This paper deals with the ritualistic concept and structure of Cham with a focus on Hemis Chetsu of Ladakh located at the extreme north of India. The festival is held to honor the birthday of $Padm{\bar{a}}sambhava$ who is the founder of Tibetan Buddhism in the 8th century. As a result, this paper drew the characteristics of Cham performance such as dance as the incarnation of sacred beings, ritualistic offering, visualization meditation as well as the ritual space as a mandala, the ritualistic intent of stylized acting, accumulative performance structure, the $Mahay{\bar{a}}nic$ motif of performance.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.20 no.3
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• pp.59-82
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• 2011

Based on travel literatures written by the Joseon literati, the different picture of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Buseok monastery from the one today emerges. Not only do the buildings removed from the monastery today reappear, but the quite different way of the monastic operation comes to light. This observation leads to a speculation that the monastery was functionally and spatially divided into two territories; that of the Immeasurable life hall and of the Dharma hall. The Immeasurable life hall's precinct was built at the site open to the west providing a grand vista of mountainous area. This siting, originally having a close relation with the visualization such as the Sixteen contemplation, not simply gave such a special attraction that the first built architectural composition has lasted through the centuries to the late Joseon, but also granted to the Chwiweon pavilion located at the western side of the precinct a special meditative quality. As the monastery has suffered from a number of heavy duties in the Joseon period, the architectural attraction of the precinct was mobilized to promote the monastic identity as the legitimate monastery first built by Uisang, the founder of Hwaeom Buddhsim. Especially, the Chwiweon pavilion offered a mental space so that the literati might form an affirmative attitude toward the monastery and the monks. The Dharma hall's precinct was built based on the direct replication of the architectural layout presented in liturgy books for the Water and Land rite as well as the Vulture Peak rite. This layout is generally called the Court-type enclosed by four buildings, which has been widely fashioned in the late Joseon period. This characteristic gave to the Dharma hall precinct an arbitrary and anonymous quality, which helped not only avoid the tourism of the literati, but also secure the sacrality and ritual efficacy at occasions of Buddhist rites. This division of territories of the monastery can be understood as the strategic reaction from the monks in order to survive in the age of oppression against Buddhism. In result, the identity of Buseok monastery in the late Joseon was established as the Nine-rank sanctuary where Bodhisattvas permanently resided.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.16 no.6
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• pp.101-120
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• 2007

This paper aims at studying on the medium of cultural interchange regarding who did and how to introduced the new trend of architecture during the period of Koryo Dynasty. Before the era of Koryo Dynasty, Kyungjang(Sutra Pitaka, 經藏) was mainly centered in Kyeongnu with a substantial function of storage. In the early Koryo Dynasty, however, Daejangjeon(大藏殿), which was spatialized for worship, began to appear. Normally, fixed walls were installed and the Sutras were enshrined inside Daejangjeon, while Jeonryunjang (revolving wheel sutras), a type of rational bookshelf, was introduced, and a new trend became developed in Kyungjang construction. Jeonryunjang(revolving wheel sutras, 轉輪藏) is a dharma instrument with a rotational function so that one revolution gives an effect of reading the enshrined Sutra one time, and began to be created actively in the period of the Northern Song. It is considered that the introduction of Jeonryunjang(revolving wheel sutras) to Daejangjeon was resulted from Haejokuksa(慧照國師) Damjin(曇眞) who visited the Kangnam areas in the Northern Song at that time. The Kangjeol areas in the Northern Song, where Damjin concentratively itinerated three times, were the place in which Jeonryunjang was created in many temples. Since Damjin, historical materials and excavated data regarding constructing Jeonryunjang have been discovered in the Buddhist temples, which are related to his pupils and dharma lineage. The only existing Jeonryunjang of Yongmusa Temple in Korea is the one that Joeung Daesunsa, who succeeded to the dharma lineage of Haesokuksa, promoted, and supports strongly such introduction of Jeonryunjang by Haesokuksa.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.20 no.5
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• pp.81-94
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• 2011

Buddhism that has arisen in India began to build the Stupa to enshrine body and Sari of Buddha as an object of worship. The stupa existed as a tome of holy leaders even before the birth of Buddha, which was called stupa or tupa in the Sanskrit and the Pali, the ancient language of India. The stupa was renamed accordingly in each Buddhism transmitted countries such as Ceylon, Tibet, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand and China and also reshaped according to their own formative style. But its original meaning and type are kept unchanged. The stupa was established in the 4 holy places including the birth place of Buddha, the place where Buddha found enlightenment, the place where Buddha preached for the first time, and the place where Buddha died. Thus, a pagoda to commemorate holy ancient places is called Chaitya, which became differentiated from the stupa in which Sari is enshrined. The stupa means Nirvana, the eternal body of Buddha, and also a place filled with teaching and preaching of Buddhism. It signifies the symbol of Buddha who escaped from the death and rebirth, to achieve complete extinction, i.e. parinirvana, and to reach ultimate eternal world, rather than simply means death. During the non-statue of th Buddha period, people built the stupa to embody Nirvana of the Buddha, and worshipped the tomb where body of holy saints was enshrined. On the other hand, they also sanctified memorial things such as tools that holy saints used, the Bo tree under which one achieved Nirvana, Dharma cakra that implied words, footprint that carried out mission work, and a way to reach to heaven.

• Journal of Korean Philosophical Society
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• v.117
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• pp.35-55
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• 2011

This article purports to clarify the doctrinal characteristics of the $Yog{\bar{a}}c{\bar{a}}ra$ school's hermeneutic interpretations of the "theory of the three turns of the Dharma Cakra" in the Saṃdbinirmocana-sūtra through early Indian $Yog{\bar{a}}c{\bar{a}}ra$ treatises such as the $Yog{\bar{a}}c{\bar{a}}rabb{\bar{u}}mi-vy{\bar{a}}kby{\bar{a}}$ and the. $Vy{\bar{a}}khy{\bar{a}}yukti$. It will probe how these interpretations apply co the theory of two truths or that of three natures($trisvabh{\bar{a}}va$) among the main doctrines of the $Yog{\bar{a}}c{\bar{a}}ra$ school. Especially, the peculiar characteristic of the "theory of the three turns of the Dharma Cakra" is such chat the thought of ${\acute{s}}{\bar{u}}nyat{\bar{a}}$ in the lineage of $Praj{\bar{n}}{\bar{a}}p{\bar{a}}ramita-s{\bar{u}}tras$ is regarded as incomplete, as the early school of Madhyamaka represented by $N{\bar{a}}g{\bar{a}}rjuna$ is conceived of as belonging to the second period of turn. Speaking of the further details of the "theory of the three turns of the Dharma Cakra", the $Yog{\bar{a}}c{\bar{a}}ra$ school subdivides the realm of saṃvṛti satya in $N{\bar{a}}g{\bar{a}}rjuna^{\prime}s$ theory of two truths; that is, it divides the saṃvṛti into merely linguistic existence and actual existence, and the thus-created structure of the theory of three natures on the basis of ocher-dependent nature(paratantra-$svabh{\bar{a}}va$) makes it possible to establish the doctrinal system of the thought of ${\acute{s}}{\bar{u}}nyat{\bar{a}}$ that is not subject to "nihilism or ${\acute{s}}{\bar{u}}nyat{\bar{a}}$ attached to evil." In effect, the above hermeneutic interpretation of the "theory of the three turns of the Dharma Cakra" is inherited into the structure of the $abh{\bar{u}}taparikalpa$ in the $Madhy{\bar{a}}nta-vibh{\bar{a}}ga$ so that, as seen in the commentary of Sthiramati, it is ascertained to apply to later doctrines through its secure establishment. To summarize its characteristics succinctly, firstly the $abh{\bar{u}}taparikalpa$ newly established as a saṃvṛti-satya is set up as the other-dependent nature, which is seen to have been set up particularly in order to sublate both the $Sarv{\bar{a}}stiv{\bar{a}}da^{\prime}s$ realist "view of being" and the Madhyamaka's "view of ${\acute{s}}{\bar{u}}nyat{\bar{a}}$" that impairs the ocher-dependent nature as a samvṛti-satya. In other words, according to the five kinds of views suggested in Sthiramati's commentary, the three natures are seen to be presented as the fundamental truth in order to unify all the doctrinal systems available ever since the beginning of Buddhism. Then, the theory of three natures is established principally on the basis of the $abh{\bar{u}}taparikalpa$, while the two truths of the $Yog{\bar{a}}c{\bar{a}}ra$ school are clearly ascertained to have been embedded in the structure of the $abh{\bar{u}}taparikalpa$. In fact, this might be understood to reflect the unique ontological view of reality or truth in the $Yog{\bar{a}}c{\bar{a}}ra$ School.

• Journal of the Daesoon Academy of Sciences
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• v.48
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• pp.305-335
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• 2024

In the 7th and 8th centuries, Chinese Buddhism was at its peak, and major sects emerged and began to differ from one another in significant ways. This fact was also revealed through several versions of Biographies of the Eminent Monks and changes observable in the peculiarity of their formats. In the early 6th century, Huijiao (慧皎) compiled Gaosengzhuan (高僧傳, Biographies of Eminent Monks) which contains the history of Buddhism after it was introduced to China. At this time, he established a new format called the ten-subjects (十科). In 645, Daoxuan (道宣) used these ten-subjects as the basic framework to compile Xu-Gaosengzhuan (續高僧傳). However, by modifying and supplementing some parts of the ten-subjects, he standardized the ten-subjects into a format suitable for historiography. After the Xu-Gaosengzhuan, several versions of Biographies of the Eminent Monks were compiled in a format that further modified the ten-subjects. Fazang (法藏) wrote Huayanjing zhuanji (華嚴經傳記, 690?) which consisted of the ten-subjects, but the names and meanings of the subjects changed significantly to emphasize the Avatamsaka philosophy. Subsequently, while compiling Hongzan fahuazhuan (弘贊法華傳, 706?), Huixiang (惠詳) compiled a newly modified list of eight-subjects based on the ten-subjects of Gaosengzhuan and Xu-Gaosengzhuan. Sengxiang (僧詳) compiled Fahua xhuanji (法華傳記, 750?) in the format of twelve-subjects which added two new subjects to the ten-subjects of the Huayanjing zhuanji. These two formats focused on faith rather than philosophy. Even in the Chan (Zen) schools, a series of Biographies of the Eminent Monks was compiled from the beginning of the 8th century. Chuan fabaoji (傳法寶紀, 713?), Lengqui shiziji (楞伽師資記, 713?), Lidai fabaoji (歷代法寶記, 774), and Baolin zhuan (寶林傳, 801) are all examples of such compilations. However, the format of these four Biographies of the Eminent Monks was completely different from prior versions. Without setting any subjects, the authors established and described a dharma lineage transmitted continually from master to disciple. This is because Chan Buddhism does not rely on Buddhist texts but focuses on monks achieving realization through other means. At first, only the Chinese patriarchs were listed, but starting with Baolin zhuan, 27 patriarchs including Buddha and Kasyapa were included in the dharma lineage and presented as history. This fictional lineage was based on the need to secure sectarian superiority and legitimacy as Chan Buddhism flourished.

• Journal of Korean Philosophical Society
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• v.146
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• pp.137-162
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• 2018

Zen Psychology refers to the psychology of Zen Buddhism as a field of Buddhist psychology. This paper examines the psychology of human beings, focusing on the "Platform Sutra" written by Huineng, the founder of Patriarchal Zen, and the southern Zen school. According to the classification of Buddhist psychology, Zen psychology is divided into theory of Zen mind, theory of Zend mind function, and Zen psychotherapy. In theory of Zen mind, Huineng explains the mind based on self-nature, and explains the theory of dharma, theory of humanity, theory of dependent origination, and worldview though self-nature. Every human mind has its own original character of self-nature. When one's own mind with self-nature is revealed, it is the basic mind. When it is covered, it is the mind of common people. Self-nature is characterized by dharma construction, incompetence, non-naming, cleanliness, equality, and self-Buddhahood. In the theory of dharma, dharma is non-dual and is equal. The theory of humanity is divided into two groups according to the sharpness and dullness or capacity of the human being. From theory of dependent origination, you can see the mobility of cover and revealment, enlightment and delusion, sacred and common. In the worldview, the world and phenomena are the functions of self-nature and one's own mind. The theory of Zen mind function deals with wisdom and defilement of common people. The function of wisdom is to know the whole and one at the same time, and is intangible. Defilement of common people is an inner common people that cover the functions of wisdom. In Zen psychotherapy, in order to eliminate the gap between human and dharma, seeing into self-nature is suggested and the goal. In teleology, the goal is to reveal and see the self-nature covered by defilements. As a methodology from cover to revealment, Huineng interprets the traditional methodology as a new interpretation from the viewpoint of the mind, and presents Sammu as its own methodology. Based on the absence of attachment, Huineng proposed a methodology of No-abiding, No-thought and No-form, to gather mind on reality and treat all things equally. Based on this, Huineng proposed a new methodology for dealing with karma through repentance and vows, and a methodology for edification. In view of the Four Noble Truth, it is the phenomenon that self-nature is covered, the cause of defilement and the mind, the aim of seeing the self-nature which is covered, and the way of revealing the covered self-nature is presented. In this sense, the Zen Psychology of Platform Sutra is psychology of self-nature.

• Journal of the Korean Society for Library and Information Science
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• v.10
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• pp.121-148
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• 1983

This study deals with and brings light on the classification system of Kyochangchongrok Kyongba((敎藏總錄 經部) Concerning the Euichon(義天)'s catalogue, Ohya(大屋德城) pointed out in 1937 that its classification system was different from that of the Kaewon Sokkyorok Yakchul(開元釋敎錄略出), and the system was not based on the diverse divisions of doctrines, such as Chontae(天台) or Whaom(華嚴). He went on to contend that the system, therefore, had no working rules, and was disorder as a corollary. The present writer, however, firmly convinced that Euichon must have had some criteria and order in editing the Catalogue on the basis of the commentaries which he had collected in 20 years, examined the catalogue by analyzing the classification system of sutra, vinaya and philosophy, thereby reclassifying them as divisions of doctrines like Wonhyo(元曉), Chontae(天台) and Hyonsu(賢首). As a result, the present writer disclosed that Euichon's Clataogue was edited in conformity with some criteria. For it was edited according tothe order of his teachings and meditations; complete combination of dharma, gist of final teachings, sermons of Hinavana Buddhism. Furthermore, it was clarified that he logically organized the system since he, concerning the sub-system, synthetically applied the reverse of the order which was illustrated in the diverse divisions of doctrines of 'Wonhyo', etc. consequently arranging and connecting the doctrines respectivelly. The significance of this treatise can, therefore, read as follows; to prove the Euichon's Catalogue was complied reasonably and logically on the basis of standing criterion.