• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제29권1호
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• pp.1-18
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• 2005

Ginseng Radix, the root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer has been used in Eastern Asia for 2000 years as a tonic and restorative, promoting health and longevity. Two varieties are commercially available: white ginseng(Ginseng Radix Alba) is produced by air-drying the root, while red ginseng(Ginseng Radix Rubra) is produced by steaming the root followed by drying. These two varieties of different processing have somewhat differences by heat processing between them. During the heat processing for preparing red ginseng, it has been found to exhibit inactivation of catabolic enzymes, thereby preventing deterioration of ginseng quality and the increased antioxidant-like substances which inhibit lipid peroxide formation, and also good gastro-intestinal absorption by gelatinization of starch. Moreover, studies of changes in ginsenosides composition due to different processing of ginseng roots have been undertaken. The results obtained showed that red ginseng differ from white ginseng due to the lack of acidic malonyl-ginsenosides. The heating procedure in red ginseng was proved to degrade the thermally unstable malonyl-ginsenoside into corresponding netural ginsenosides. Also the steaming process of red ginseng causes degradation or transformation of neutral ginsenosides. Ginsenosides $Rh_2,\;Rh_4,\;Rs_3,\;Rs_4\;and\;Rg_5$, found only in red ginseng, have been known to be hydrolyzed products derived from original saponin by heat processing, responsible for inhibitory effects on the growth of cancer cells through the induction of apoptosis. 20(S)-ginsenoside $Rg_3$ was also formed in red ginseng and was shown to exhibit vasorelaxation properties, antimetastatic activities, and anti-platelet aggregation activity. Recently, steamed red ginseng at high temperature was shown to provide enhance the yield of ginsenosides $Rg_3\;and\;Rg_5$ characteristic of red ginseng Additionally, one of non-saponin constituents, panaxytriol, was found to be structually transformed from polyacetylenic alcohol(panaxydol) showing cytotoxicity during the preparation of red ginseng and also maltol, antioxidant maillard product, from maltose and arginyl-fructosyl-glucose, amino acid derivative, from arginine and maltose. In regard to the in vitro and in vivo comparative biological activities, red ginseng was reported to show more potent activities on the antioxidant effect, anticarcinogenic effect and ameliorative effect on blood circulation than those of white ginseng. In oriental medicine, the ability of red ginseng to supplement the vacancy(허) was known to be relatively stronger than that of white ginseng, but very few are known on its comparative clinical studies. Further investigation on the preclinical and clinical experiments are needed to show the differences of indications and efficacies between red and white ginsengs on the basis of oriental medicines.

• Korean Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering
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• 제16권12호
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• pp.1234-1268
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• 2004

A review on the papers published in the Korean Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigerating Engineering in 2002 and 2003 has been carried out. Focus has been put on current status of research in the aspect of heating, cooling, air-conditioning, ventilation, sanitation and building environment/design. The conclusions are as follows. (1) Most of fundamental studies on fluid flow were related with heat transportation in diverse facilities. Drop formation and rivulet flow on solid surfaces were interesting topics related with condensation augmentation. Research on micro environment considering flow, heat transfer, humidity was also interesting to promote comfortable living environment. It can be extended considering biological aspects. Development of fans and blowers of high performance and low noise were continuing research topics. Well developed CFD technologies were widely applied for analysis and design of various facilities and their systems. (2) Heat transfer characteristics of enhanced finned tube heat exchangers and heat sinks were extensively investigated. Experimental studies on the boiling heat transfer, vortex generators, fluidized bed heat exchangers, and frosting and defrosting characteristics were also conducted. In addition, the numerical simulations on various heat exchangers were performed and reported to show heat transfer characteristics and performance of the heat exchanger. (3) A review of the recent studies shows that the performance analysis of heat pump have been made by various simulations and experiments. Progresses have been made specifically on the multi-type heat pump systems and other heat pump systems in which exhaust energy is utilized. The performance characteristics of heat pipe have been studied numerically and experimentally, which proves the validity of the developed simulation programs. The effect of various factors on the heat pipe performance has also been examined. Studies of the ice storage system have been focused on the operational characteristics of the system and on the basics of thermal storage materials. Researches into the phase change have been carried out steadily. Several papers deal with the cycle analysis of a few thermodynamic systems which are very useful in the field of air-conditioning and refrigeration. (4) Recent studies on refrigeration and air-conditioning systems have focused on the system performance and efficiency enhancement when new alternative refrigerants are applied. Heat transfer characteristics during evaporation and condensation are investigated for several tube shapes and new alternative refrigerants including natural refrigerants. Efficiency of various compressors and performance of new expansion devices are also dealt with for better design of refrigeration/air conditioning system. In addition to the studies related with thermophysical properties of refrigerant mixtures, studies on new refrigerants are also carried out. It should be noted that the researches on two-phase flow are constantly carried out. (5) A review of the recent studies on absorption refrigeration system indicates that heat and mass transfer enhancement is the key factor in improving the system performance. Various experiments have been carried out and diverse simulation models have been presented. Study on the small scale absorption refrigeration system draws a new attention. Cooling tower was also the research object in the respect of enhancement its efficiency, and performance analysis and optimization was carried out. (6) Based on a review of recent studies on indoor thermal environment and building service systems, it is noticed that research issues have mainly focused on several innovative systems such as personal environmental modules, air-barrier type perimeterless system with UFAC, radiant floor cooling system, etc. New approaches are highlighted for improving indoor environmental conditions and minimizing energy consumption, various activities of building energy management and cost-benefit analysis for economic evaluation.

• Food Science and Preservation
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• 제18권6호
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• pp.980-985
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• 2011

This study was conducted to determine the acetic-acid fermentation properties of apple juice (initial alcohol content, apple juice concentration, acetic-acid content, and inoculum size) in flask scale. At the acetic-acid fermentation of apple juice with 3, 5, 7, and 9% initial alcohol content, the maximum acidity after 10-day fermentation was 5.88% when the initial alcohol content was 5%. The acetic-acid fermentation did not proceed normally when the initial alcohol content was 9%. When the initial Brix was $1^{\circ}$, the acidity gradually increased, and the acidity after 12-day acetic-acid fermentation was 4.48%. Above 4% acidity was attained faster when the apple juice concentration was 5 and 10 $^{\circ}Brix$ than when it was 1 and 14 $^{\circ}Brix$. When the initial acidity was 1% or above (0.3, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0%), the acetic-acid fermentation proceeded normally. The acetic-acid fermentation also proceeded normally when the inoculum sizes were 10 and 15%, and the acidity after eight-day acetic-acid fermentation was 5.60 and 6.05%, respectively. Therefore, the following were considered the optimal acetic-acid fermentation conditions for apple cider vinegar: 5% initial alcohol content, 5 $^{\circ}Brix$ or above apple juice concentration, 1.0% or above initial acidity, and 10% or above inoculum size. Apple cider vinegar with above 5% acidity can be produced within 48 h under the following acetic-acid fermentation conditions: 7% initial alcohol content, about 1% initial acidity, and 10% inoculum volume at $30^{\circ}C$, 30 rpm, and 1.0 vvm, using 14 $^{\circ}Brix$ apple juice in a mini-jar fermentor as a pre-step for industrial-scale adaptation.

• Food Science and Preservation
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• 제24권3호
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• pp.446-454
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• 2017

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) and traditional herb has several functional properties and strong biological activities, making it useful as a functional food material. We investigated the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of mixed compounds from red garlic and supplementary materials, including ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), doraji (Platycodon grandiflorum), quince (Chaenomeles sinensis), citrus peel (Citri Pericarpium), and mint (Mentha arvensis). The extracts were prepared with water (W) and ethanol (E) at $70^{\circ}C$ (W-70, E-70) and $95^{\circ}C$ (W-95, E-95) for 3 h. The total content of phenolic compounds was the highest in E-70 (608.60 mg/100 g). Alliin, one of the active ingredients in red garlic, was contained at 1.18-1.29 mg/g and 0.81-0.85 mg/g in water and ethanol extract, respectively. Another active ingredient of red garlic, S-allyl-cysteine (SAC) had higher content in the water extract than in the ethanol extracts. DPPH radical scavenging activity was higher in E-70 (15.96-73.65%) at $313-5,000{\mu}g/mL$. ABTS radical scavenging activity was also higher in E-70 (5.71-77.19%) than in the others. The ROS production rate showed the same tendency as the NO production, with more efficacy in E-95. The expression level of iNOS and $IL-1{\beta}$ was decreased in the E-95 significantly at the concentration of $1,000{\mu}g/mL$ compared to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treated group. Based on the above results, the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities of the extracts of red garlic and supplementary materials were expressed by different useful substances. The contents of these useful substances were different according to the extraction solvent and temperature.

• Food Science and Preservation
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• 제25권1호
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• pp.52-61
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• 2018

In this study, vineger was produced after heat treatment of Elaeagnus multiflora juice and its fermentative characteristics were investigated. The heat-treated juice and vinegar of E. multiflora were similar in fruit color, with b values (redness) of 39.48 (juice) and 37.56 (vinegar). After 10 days of fermentation of E. multiflora fruit, the acetic acid bacteria viable cell number, pH, acidity, reducing sugar content, and alcohol content were 4.59-4.62 log CFU/mL, 3.14-3.45, 0.2-2.12%, 0.69-35.24 mg/mL, and 0.2%, respectively. The heat-treated juice and vinegar showed significantly higher radical scavenging and digestive enzyme inhibitory activities than untreated samples, and the levels of soluble phenolics, soluble flavonoids, flavan-3-ol derivatives, and phenolic and derivatives were increased. Additioinally, the heat-treated vinegar contained major organic acids, such as acetic acid (21.82 mg/mL), and major flavan-3-ols and phenolic acids, such as catechin ($72.24{\mu}g/mL$), catechin gallate ($273.36{\mu}g/mL$), epigallocatechin gallate ($68.35{\mu}g/mL$), protocatechuic acid ($12.84{\mu}g/mL$), and salicylic acid ($42.29{\mu}g/mL$). At $25{\mu}L/mL$ treatment, DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities and ${\alpha}$-glucosidase and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activities were 79.66%, 93.99%, 90.12%, and 64.85%, respectively. This result suggested that it is possible to produce new types of vinegar and beverages, using heat-treated E. multiflora juice.

• Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer
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• 제34권1호
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• pp.33-41
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• 2001

Enormous volumes of mining wastes from the abandoned and closed mines are disposed without a proper treatment in the upper Okdong River basin at Southeastern part of Kangwon Province. Erosion of these wastes contaminates soil, surface water, and sediments with heavy metals. Objectives of this research were to fractionate heavy metals in the mine tailing stored in the Sangdong Tungsten tailing dams and to assess the potential pollution index of each metal fraction. Tailing samples were collected from tailing dams at different depth and analyzed for physical and chemical properties. pH of tailings ranged from 7.3 to 7.9. Contents of total N and organic matter were in the ranges of 3.2~5.5%, and 1.3~9.1%, respectively. Heavy metals in the tailings were higher in the newly constructed tailing dam than those in the old dam. Total concentrations of metals in the tailings were in the orders of Zn > Cu > Pb > Ni > Cd, exceeded the corrective action level of the Soil Environment Conservation Law and higher than the natural abundance levels reported from uncontaminated soils. Relative distribution of heavy metal fractions was residual > organic > reducible > carbonate > adsorbed, reversing the degree of metal bioavailability. Mobile fractions of metals were relatively small compared to the total concentrations. Distribution of metals in the tailing dam profiles was metal specific. Concentrations of Cu at the surface of tailing dams were higher than those at the bottom. Pollution index (PI) values of each fraction of metals were ranged from 4.27 to 8.51 based on total concentrations. PI values of mobile fractions were lower than those of immobile fractions. Results on metal fractions and PI values of the tailing samples indicate that tailing samples were contaminated with heavy metals and had potential to cause a detrimental effects on soil and water environment in the lower part of the stream. A prompt countermeasure to prevent surface of tailings in the dams from water and wind erosions is urgently needed.

• Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer
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• 제44권5호
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• pp.808-813
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• 2011

This study was conducted to reduce the dependability of farmers on chemical fertilizers for rice cultivation. Soil chemical and biological properties were monitored before experiment and at the time of harvesting. The results showed that EC, available $SiO_2$, and exchangeable $Ca^{2+}$ were decreased at the time of harvesting while pH, OM, and exchangeable $K^+$ and $Mg^{2+}$ were remain unchanged, compared with soil before experiment. Population of aerobic bacteria, Bacillus sp., and fungi were also increased at the time of harvesting in the paddy field, compared with before fertilization, in the treatment of 50% soil-testing fertilizer+ 50% compost. Concentrations of N, P, and K in rice leaves increased with the fertilizers application, maximum increase was recorded in 50% soil-testing fertilizer+ 50% compost. Non-significant difference was observed in the morphological parameters of rice among the treatments. The chlorophyll contents of rice leaf increased in a similar fashion up to 60 days, thereafter, sharp decrease was observed in all the treatments. Maximum yield (per 10a) was recorded in the field treated with 50% soil-testing fertilizer+ 50% compost followed by standard applied fertilizer, 70% soil-testing fertilizer+ 30% compost, soil-testing fertilizer and unfertilized plot. Amylose content showed non-significant difference within the treatments. Protein content increased with the use of fertilizers and best protein content was recorded in the treatment of 50% soil-testing fertilizer+ 50% compost. It was concluded that the amount of the chemical fertilizer used was directly proportional to the protein content of rice grain. However, the palatability of rice grown in unfertilized field was better than the treatments but minimum yield was obtained. Hence, the treatment of 50% soil-testing fertilizer+ 50% compost, was the best among the fertilizer combinations for rice cultivation as supported by the yield, protein and palatability index.

• KOREAN JOURNAL OF CROP SCIENCE
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• 제66권3호
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• pp.240-247
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• 2021

Anthocyanins are known to be involved in various functions such as antioxidant and antibacterial activities in plants. Although studies on anthocyanins in corn have been conducted recently, basic research related to anthocyanin biosynthesis is insufficient. In this study, we examined the molecular biological and physicochemical properties related to anthocyanin biosynthesis in the tassel and silks of Gwangpyeongok and Dacheongok cultivars. Anthocyanins were not synthesized in either the tassel or silks in Gwangpyeongok, whereas were synthesized in both in Dacheongok. The total anthocyanin content was approximately 30 times higher in the tassel and silks of Dacheongok than in those of Gwangpyeongok. In addition, C-3-G was measured only in the tassel of Dacheongok, and C-3-G, Pg-3-G, and M-3-G were 45.2 times, 27.3 times, and 37.6 times higher, respectively, in the silks of Dacheongok than of Gwangpyeongok. Expression of F3'H, DFR, and GST genes decreased in the tassel, and that of F3'H and DFR genes decreased in the silks of Gwangpyeongok. It was further confirmed that transcription factor P1 and R1 regulate the expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes in the tassel and silks, respectively, in Gwangpyeongok. Linoleic acid (C18:2) decreased by 6.6% and 10.9%, and linolenic acid (C18:3) increased by 8.5% and 8.5%, in the tassel and silks, respectively, of Gwangpyeongok compared to those of Dacheongok. Palmitic acid (C16:0) increased by 4.1% and oleic acid (C18:1) decreased by 2.1% in the silks of Gwangpyeongok compared to that in Dacheongok. In addition, the total fatty acid content in the tassel and silks increased by 10.3% and 30.4%, respectively, in Gwangpyeongok compared to that in Dacheongok. However, no significant results were observed in the analysis of phytosterol components. These results may be utilized as useful resources for the development of functional corn containing a large amount of anthocyanins.

• Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety
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• 제36권5호
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• pp.418-429
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• 2021

This paper investigates the antioxidant activity and quality characteristics of yanggaeng containing white ginseng and red ginseng extracts and their enzyme hydrolysates that were produced for the purpose of the study. White and red ginseng extracts were hydrolyzed using Rapidase C80 max, Pyr-flo, and Ultimase MFC. Ginsenoside F2 and compound K (CK) were not detected in white and red ginseng before enzymic reaction but were detected in white and red ginseng hydrolyzed through Rapidase C80 max, Pyr-flo, and Ultimase MFC, and the content of CK was the highest in the second enzymic reaction group of red ginseng. Upon preparing yanggaeng containing white and red ginseng before or after enzymatic hydrolysis, the polyphenol content and antioxidant abilities were analyzed. The yanggaeng containing enzyme-hydrolyzed white ginseng and red ginseng showed greater total polyphenol content, superior DPPH radical scavenging activity, superior ABTS radical scavenging activity, and superior FRAP analysis results compared to the yanggaeng that doesn't contain white or red ginseng. As the enzymic reaction was performed in the added white and red ginseng, the antioxidant activity increased significantly (P<0.05). In brightness(L^*), non-additive yanggaeng (control group) was the highest, red ginseng yanggaeng (RG) showed the highest redness(a^*), and the white ginseng yanggaeng (WG) showed the highest yellowness(b^*). In terms of texture, the yanggaeng containing red ginseng with second hydrolysis (RG-T2) showed significantly high results in hardness, springiness, chewiness, cohesiveness, and gumminess (P<0.05). In conclusion, treating white and red ginseng with Rapidase C80 max, Pyr-flo, and Ultimase MFC is very useful in ginsenoside deglycosylation and will produce CK with excellent biological activity. It can also be seen that yanggaeng containing white and red ginseng hydrolyzed with enzymes significantly increase total polyphenol and antioxidant activity compared to the control group (yanggaeng with no added ginseng). These results will be useful as excellent foundational data for the production of functional yanggaeng in the future.

• Journal of Life Science
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• 제31권9호
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• pp.818-826
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• 2021

5-Aminolevulinic acid phosphate (5-ALA-p) is a substance obtained by eluting 5-ALA (a natural delta amino acid) with aqueous ammonia, adding phosphoric acid to the eluate, and then adding acetone to confer properties suitable for use in photodynamic therapy applications. However, its pharmacological efficacy, including potential mechanisms of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory reactions, remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of 5-ALA-p on oxidative and inflammatory stresses in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Our data showed that 5-ALA-p significantly inhibited excessive phagocytic activity via LPS and attenuated oxidative stress in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 cells. Furthermore, 5-ALA-p improved mitochondrial biogenesis reduced by LPS, suggesting that 5-ALA-p restores mitochondrial damage caused by LPS. Additionally, 5-ALA-p significantly suppressed the release of nitric oxide (NO) and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6, which are associated with the inhibition of inducible NO synthase and respective cytokine expression. Furthermore, 5-ALA-p reduced the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and inhibited phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), indicating that the anti-inflammatory effect of 5-ALA-p is mediated through the suppression of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Based on these results, 5-ALA-p may serve as a potential candidate to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress.