• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.55 no.4
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• pp.212-240
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• 2022

This study is a multi-layered exploration of 「The Thirty-Six Scenery of Seongdeok Summer Mountain Resort(承德避暑山莊三十六景)」 (The 36th view of Kangxi) recited by Emperor Kangxi of China through literature study, ancient calligraphy diagrams, and field studies. The conclusion of tracing the landscape characteristics and implications contained in 「The 36th view of Kangxi」 through the analysis of the headword(標題語) and the interpretation of the Jeyeong poem(題詠詩) is as follows. 「The 36th view of Kangxi」 is an extension of the outer edge of the Eight Sceneries, and when compared to the existing Eight Sceneries peom and Eight Sceneries painting, it is found that the landscape is centered on the 'viewpoint' rather than the landscape object. In particular, it aimed to create a structured landscape centered on nine types of buildings represented by 'Jeon(殿)' and 'Jeong(亭)' was given. In particular, Yeouiju, located in Lake district, is a scenic country endowed with the character of a gardens in Garden, which is composed by collecting famous representative Chinese landscapes and landscapes of Sansu-si and Sanshu Painting. As a result of headword analysis to understand the characteristics of landscape components, 14 landscapes (38.9%) related to water elements and 13 landscapes(36.1%) related to mountain elements, the elements related to architecture and civil engineering were classified in the order of 3 cases(8.3%), and the elements related to the skylight were classified in the order of 2 cases(5.6%). However, in Jeyeong-si, the mention of landscape vocabulary for climate elements was overwhelming. In other words, in the poems of 「The 36th Scenery of Kangxi」, scenery vocabulary symbolizing 'coolness' such as 雲(cloud), 水(water), 泉(spring), 清(clear), 波(wave), 流(wave), 風(wind) and 無暑(without heat), etc. It is not a coincidence that it appears, and it is strongly attached to the sense of place of Summer Mountain Resort in Rehe(熱河). Among the 23 landscapes whose seasonal background was confirmed, the fact that the lower landscape is portrayed as the majority and the climate elements of the resort area are portrayed in three-dimensional and multi-dimensional ways are closely related to the period of enjoying the gardens of Kangxi, the main subject of the landscape. In addition, many animal and plant landscapes appearing in Jeyeong-si appear to be in the same context as the spatial attributes of not only recreation, but also contemplation and hunting. On the other hand, in Jeyeongsi, there are 33 wonders(91.7%) citing famous people and famous books through ancient poems, old stories, and ancient stories tends to be prominent. It is inferred that this was based on Kangxi's understanding and pride in traditional Chinese culture. In 「The 36th view of Kangxi」, not only a book-writing description of the feelings of being entrusted to the family sutras, but also the spirit of patriotism, love, self-discipline and respect for mother and filial piety are strongly implied. Ultimately, 「The 36th view of Kangxi」 shows the real scene of the resort, as well as the spiritual dimension, in a multi-faceted and three-dimensional way, and the spirit of an emperor based on the dignity of the royal family and the sentiments of a writer it deserves to be called a collection of imperial records that were intended to reveal.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.29 no.4
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• pp.297-309
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• 2013

Iron objects become corroded at fast speed from the moment when they are excavated, so it is needed to control corrosion through processes of conservation treatment. However, re-corrosion mostly takes place in excavate iron objects, although they have already gone through the process of conservation treatment, and it is more difficult to carry out the second conservation treatment of re-corroded excavated iron objects than the first conservation treatment, and it requires a longer period of time to treat them as well. In this study, aims to discover factors of re-corrosion by scientifically analyzing corrosion products generated during the process of storage after the process of conservation treatment. The finished on conservation treatment of the iron artifacts, which were unearthed from three ancient site in Gyeongju by using the same conservation method between 2002 and 2009, re-corrosion condition observed on the packaging-iron artifacts. Focused on 9 target forged iron artifacts among them, this study analyzed the physical changes by mass measurement, naked-eye and microscopic observations and the chemical changes by SEM-EDS, XRD, IC and ICP analysis. The results show that the yellowish brown corrosion products formed on the facing surface of part dropped from the artifacts had different associated forms but acicular shape. In addition, the acicular shape became clearer as the color changed from red to yellowish brown. According to the process when the conservation treatment was completed, the mass of the artifacts increased in proportion to the corrosion products and the chloride ion ($Cl^-$) concentration had a tendency to increase relatively. ${\beta}$-FeOOH (akaganeite) was confirmed in the XRD analysis for the corrosion products of all the collected samples. As a result of ICP analysis, $Na^+$ and $Ca^{2+}$ components were confirmed.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.45 no.3
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• pp.114-159
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• 2012

The Northern Song Dynasty Period (北宋時代) was a drastic transitional era in all aspect of Chinese society including the politico-economic system, ideology and cultural trait. These changes that began in the late Tang (唐) Dynasty Period accomplished in the Northern Song Dynasty. In this phase, the fundamental change influenced in all institutional area; and among them, the capital city planning and its associating building technology to pile stone walls shows one of the significant change of those time. Based on the geographical factor, confluences of many rivers, the Kaifeing (開封) area where the BianLieng palace had developed as a political and economical centre since the Tang Dynasty when the Grand Canal was constructed. According to archaeological researches, the central city structure of Dongjing Walled Town was begun to plan in the late Tang Dynasty and formed in Five Dynasties. The fundamental functional change of city completed in the Midnorthern Song Dynasty. In spite of the relatively late beginning of archaeological investigations to Kaifeng Walled Town and Dongjing Walled Town due to unfavourable natural environment, excavations inaugurated since 1981 have achieved the significant investigations including the actual measurement and excavation to the outer wall, the preliminary excavation to the inner city area, the investigation and excavation to the royal palace of Song and the survey to the royal palace of King Zho in the Ming (明) Dynasty. These surveys have provide important data to reconstruct the 변량 palace, and elucidate the characteristics of city plan in the Dongjing Walled Town and the institutional change of capital city plan of the Northern Song Dynasty. The basic layout of Dongjing Walled Town reflect the realisation of ideality of the late Chinese medieval capital city structure that establish the commercial and economic centre based on the intensification of emperor's power by means of the organisation of ethical institution and the development of commercial economy. Firstly, the central place of the Kaifeng area is encircled with triple walls. This emphasise the authority of emperor located on the summit in the hierarchical ethic system succeeding to the main capital city plan of the late phase of ancient China. Secondly, the location of Dongjing Walled Town was decided by the transport network and the commercial function and defence function. Thirdly, this site shows the change of city structure and landscape of the Northern Song Dynasty. The closed Fengri (坊里: block) system transferred the open Jiexiang (街巷: road) system. Fourthly, the capital city was characterised by the free market trade and the diversification of market place. Fifthly, a convenient transport network in the Bian River, a centre of the Grand Canals, enabled to construct the Kaifeng Walled Town. Therefore, the Northern Song Dynasty continuously accomplished the developed water system as concerning about the utilisation of waterways after the construction of city.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.40
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• pp.357-386
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• 2007

At present, thirteen Buddhist bells of Unified Silla are known to the world: Six in Korea, five in Japan and two other bells, and three out of them are impossible to make out its original form. Therefore, we divided the form of Unified Silla Buddhist bells based on the ten other bells, and we tried out to prove the manufacturing technology by the comparison of the research material of Uncheon-dong bell and existing research materials of other bells, in other to find their linkage based on the alloy elemental composition. We divided Unified Silla Buddhist bell into two types: Type I has symmetric apsaras and regular patterns on its face and it was made in early Silla period; type II has asymmetric apsaras and irregular pattern arrangement and made in late Silla period. In particular, Uncheon-dong Buddhist bells is very similar to Komyoji[光明寺] temple bell from ninth century in Japan. It is peculiar that the apsaras on Uncheon-dong bell play vertical music instruments that are never seen in Unified Silla Buddhist bell. Most of Unified Silla Buddhist bell are compounded with Cu-Sn or Cu-Sn-Pb system. From eighth and ninth century, bells were cast with even composition of copper, tin and lead, and the bronze alloy ratio was similar to the record in Gogonggi[考工記], Jurye[周禮], a book from ancient China. Particularly, Uncheon-dong bell is in a rare case of Cu-Sn-Pb-As system. As had been rarely used in Unified Silla Buddhist bells, so we presented the relative research materials. As has the same nature as Pb. Because As easily volatilize at high temperature, it is hard to use. But it has its merit of solidity and durability. Pb enhances fluidity and thereby expresses the patterns more distinct; As makes the bell stronger. The result of lead isotope ratio could not exactly reveal a concrete producing center. However, over the analysis of our samples, hereby we suggest Uncheon-dong bell was made of materials from just one ore deposit.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.33 no.2
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• pp.103-114
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• 2015

UNESCO and IUCN established the term of 'Sacred Natural Sites' (areas of land or water having special spiritual significance to peoples and communities) for conservation of biological and cultural diversity. Dangsan forest, a traditional village forests of rural Korea is a representative 'Sacred Natural Site' with a history of more than several hundred years of Dangsan ritual. The Chungmak village, Gyeokpo-ri, Buan-gun is a small seashore village. It is an important place that has the largest ancient maritime ritual sites in Korea. Buan-gun have been tried to register the 'Chungmak-dong Ritual Site' for the World Heritage List. However, the fact that this 'Chungmak-dong Ritual Site'(5~6 century, Baekje of the Three-kingdom period) was located in the Dangsan forest, surrounding the shrine, is not much understood. In this study, the landscape characteristics and culture of the sacred Dangsan forest at Gyeokpo-ri, including Gyeokpo-ri, Dae-ri, Naesosa temple Seokpo-ri, Buan-gun and Dongho-ri, Gochang-gun were investigated. And, the potential of registering for World Heritage, 'Protected Area of Sacred Natural Sites' by linking the four site's Dangsan forests has been investigated. The sacred Dangsan forests in the neighborhood of Gyeokpo-ri have kept their landscape characteristics and retained Dangsan ritual. As a result of SWOT analysis for sacred natural sites, WT(weakness-threat) strategy has chosen as priority strategy. The reason is that there is few management scheme. The Dangsan forests at the neighborhood of Gyeokpo-ri need to be recognized by people in Korea, for their valuable landscape characteristics. The places should be managed and protected to remain as a sacred natural sites in order to be prepared for a World Heritage.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.33 no.1
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• pp.1-11
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• 2015

Gyeongju, Silla capital, hasn't paid much attention to a value of fortress as advanced frame of landscape all the while. All have done until now were maintaining lots of fortress including Gyeongju and setting night landscape lighting for them or building a trail in mountain fortress. Hereupon, this study tried to take a look at historical and scenic value of fortress, landscape frame of Gyeongju-Silla capital, based on Wolseong and Myeonghwalseong and find the way to contribute to it on landscape architectural level. As Wolseong(月城) and Myeonghwalseong(明活城) functioned as royal palace in Silla Dynasty, they need some research and study on fortress inside in detail rather than restoring them by simply maintaining the shapes. While Wolseong has overall excavation investigation going on, Myeonghwalseong representing mountain fortress area is losing its value due to unbefitting management to a title of world heritage. If conducting close research and study on these remains, it seems like it could contribute a lot to landscape architectural research of Silla royal palace through tracks, which will be used as royal palace. Here I suggest research direction on landscape architectural level about fortress remains in Gyeongju area as followings. Firstly, away from all research focusing on fortress shape, consecration way, etc, we need to conduct a research comprisable of inner space of fortress. As Wolseong and Myeonghwalseong functioned as royal palace in Silla Dynasty, it'll be possible to research about ponds, Nu-Jeong(樓亭), drainage facilities, oddly shaped stones, moundings, pavements, circulation systems, planting traces, etc. For this, we need to research and study through comparison with cases of China, Japan and Goguryeo of the same age. Secondly, applying garden archaeological way is possible to translate objectively regarding research of ancient garden with low literature record. But attainable achievement and information will be limited if implementing excavation based on archaeology as excavations so far regarding excavation investigation of Wolseong. The alternative to such problem is participation plan of landscaping field through the foundation of garden archaeology. We might be able to attain many results on landscape architectural level from research, if conducting research and study about Silla capital including Wolseong by applying garden archaeology such as collection of environmental sample and discovery and analysis of remains through aerial photograph, archaeological research, analysis of historical building, surface exploration, excavation technique, analysis of soil and flowerpot, etc. For this, many people majored in landscape architecture need to try and acquire archaeological knowledge. Also, we need to call attention to internal garden archaeology through international academic symposium by inviting global experts in garden archaeology field. I've suggested the study of location of Wolseong and Silla fortress in Gyeongju area, plan research on using and treating trees about the space in and out of fortress and landscape architectural research direction of Wolseong fortress.

• Korea journal of population studies
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• v.27 no.1
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• pp.171-201
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• 2004

Modern sciences in the West are deeply rooted in the Greek and Roman cultural heritage. Consequently, the academic achievements accomplished by the scholars of the Arabs including Persian world, the profound thoughts developed in the Indian subcontinent, and the excellent works made by the East Asian scholars have mostly been neglected in the past. This paper attempts to compare the thoughts and theories on population developed by the Western scholars with those of East Asian scolars, in chronological order, ancient, mediaeval, and modern period before Malthus. The thesis that excessive population growth may reduce output per worker, depress levels of living for the masses and engender strife is of great antiquity. In fact, overpopulation in East Asia, especially in China, goes back to very ancient times, most Confucian scholars maintained the notion of a numerical balance between population and environment. They also looked for means to check the increase in numbers. The foundations of a theory of optimum population level, fully developed in the twentieth century, can be found in their writings. Although early population thoughts in China had not advanced far in the analysis of the significance of population size and growth, it had taken only a few steps forward. At some times and to some observers, populousness appeared desirable; at other times and to other observers, it seemed all too evident that the number of people could become too great. These viewpoints foreshowed some of the later developments. The early population literatures reviewed here seem to consist of a number of quite isolated contributions. In fact, however, there may have been a greater continuity of thought than now appears, for many of the contributions may have been lost and there are many gaps in the record. An intensive review on comparing two works, those of Malthus' and Hong, Liang-chi's, are presented in this paper. Only five years before Malthus published his famous work, An Essay on the Principle of Population, Hong published his theories on population. Some of them, Hong insisted, are very similar to the Malthusian concepts of geometrical increase, natural and artificial checks of population. Despite the excellent works in the ancient period, this paper concludes with an investigation of the reasons why modem achievements in scientific areas in the East Asia have been far behind that of the West.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.3
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• pp.164-183
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• 2020

In the textile culture of the Joseon Dynasty, the historic record of Banpo is fragmentary and contains many missing details. The main reason is a lack of associated literature, and it is also significant that the actual substance used is not clear at present. Banpo is a kind of cotton, but this has not been confirmed in the traditional textiles that are currently handed down. The word Ban [斑] in Banpo means "stain", and the letter Po [布] means "fabric". At the border of white discourse, Banpo did not receive attention as a research topic. This study is an attempt to restore some of the textile culture of the Joseon Dynasty through Banpo. Banpo is not just limited to the Joseon Dynasty; it is an important material for examining the development of textile culture and exchange in East Asia. This study was broadly divided into three parts. First, the record and meaning of Banpo during the Joseon Dynasty were examined. Records of Banpo can be seen from the early Joseon period during King Sejo and Seongjong, and the production and actual use of Banpo have been confirmed. Banpo was maintained until the beginning of the 20^th century, but is no longer observed. Banpo is a woven fabric made of cotton yarn dyed in many colors and has appeared in Southeast Asia since ancient times. In East Asia, there are other fabrics similar to Banpo, such as Ho [縞], Sum [纖], and Chim [綅]. In particular, the correlation between Banpo and Ho is an important link in understanding Banpo in the Joseon Dynasty. Second, the meaning of Banpo was examined from various angles through comprehensive analysis of Chinese and Japanese literature records and cases. The appearance and development of Banpo moved in sync with the period when cotton was introduced into East Asia. In East Asia, cotton was introduced and produced in earnest from the end of the Song Dynasty to the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty, and the meaning of Banpo was diversified. In China, the name of Banpo was changed to Hwapo [花布], Gizapo [碁子布], Gizahwapo [棋子花布], etc. Japan was late to introduce cotton and developed it in acceptance of the changed meaning. In Japan, use of the name Banpo is not on record, but a Ryujo [柳條] fabric of the same type as banpo has been identified. This Ryujo is the same concept as Ho and Hwapo, and later merged into Ho. Names such as Ho, Hwapo, Banpo, etc. were used differently in each country, but the form was shared across East Asia. Third, based on the meaning of Banpo shared in East Asia, the format of Banpo in the Joseon Dynasty was classified. The format of Banpo in the Joseon Dynasty can be divided into grid and striped versions. The name Banpo disappeared over time, but the form remained and was passed down until recently. I hope that this study will help restore Banpo in the future.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.38 no.1
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• pp.10-20
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• 2020

This study aims to analyze the developed characteristics of the knowledge and information of gardens through garden or flowering plant books compiled in the 15th and 19th centuries of Joseon Dynasty. Diachronically analysis of the garden or flowering plant books classified the characteristics in which knowledge and information about gardens are developed by the period, and looked at the factors. The results are as follows; First, the relationship between the authors who compiled the garden or flowering plant books had similar characteristics to the genealogy of Realist School of Confucianism(實學) in the Joseon Dynasty. Kang, Hee-An's practical features influenced later realist school of confucianism scholars. Lee, Su-Gwang has accumulated knowledge of the garden through his experience of traveling the diplomatic envoy to China. Since then, Hong Man-sun's ideology has been related to Charles, a member of the Southerners. Seo Yu-gu was also able to accept Realist School of Confucianism in an integrated way through the Jungnong school's theory and interaction with the Jungsang school. Ryu, Jung-Lim's relationship with the Jungnong school emerged as he added to the 『Jeungbosanrimgyeongje(增補山林經濟)』. Second, the 『Yanghwasorok(養花小錄)』, 『Jibongyuseol(芝峯類說)』 「Hwuimok(卉木)」, 『Hangjeongrok(閑情錄)』, 『Sanrimgyeongje(山林經濟)』 「Yanghwa(養花)」, 『Jeungbosanrimgyeongje(增補山林經濟)』 「Yanghwa(養花)」, 『Hwaamsurok(花庵隨錄)』 and 『Imwongyeongjeji(林園經濟志)』 「Yewonji(藝畹志)」 contain garden plant characteristics, cultivation methods, and management methods. The 『Imwongyeongjeji(林園經濟志)』 「Seomyongji(贍用志)」, 「Iunji(怡雲志)」, 「Sangtaekji(相宅志)」 contain details on the location selection of gardens, the layout of facilities, how to create them and materials. The description of these garden or flowering plant books was found to be the most common introduction with 55 percent, followed by methodologies(42.8%), the Lichi Theory(理氣論, 15.5%), the classification(12.4%), and the convention(1.9%). Third, based on the importance of knowledge and information on gardens, the garden or flowering plant books related to the period were classified as early period, including 『Yanghwasorok(養花小錄)』, 『Jibongyuseol(芝峯類說)』 which were compiled before the 17th century. The 18th-century compiled 『Sanrimgyeongje(山林經濟)』 and 『Jeungbosanrimgyeongje(增補山林經濟)』 were classified as middle period, and the 19th-century compilation of 『Imwongyeongjeji(林園經濟志)』 was classified as late period. The garden or flowering plant books were cited the contents of ancient Chinese books, the author's experiences and opinions contained in the preceding period in later garden books. And the reinforcement of garden knowledge was made to reflect the agricultural technology and expertise developed at the time of writing. Fourth, based on analysis of the development and acceptance of knowledge information in garden by period, In the early period was dealing with floriculture as a way to explore the logic of things. Later, in the 18th century, a vast influx of garden knowledge information came from China. Among scholars, they secured justification for garden creation as part of various knowledge-seeking activities, which expanded their expertise in gardens. In response to the trend of gardening in the 19th century, professional books were written based on knowledge and information on gardens that were collected in the past, and systems were established such as the collection and management of garden plants, construction methods, enjoying methods, and self-realization.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.2
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• pp.204-221
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• 2020

East Asian countries share a culture of perfuming clothes. The prosperity of the Maritime Silk Road and the incense trade are direct factors that have led to the development of incense culture. Perfuming clothes is a method of applying fragrance by burning incense. The Chinese could make an incense mixture with various types of incense, and records demonstrating use of perfuming clothes tools (熏籠) show that they might have perfumed clothes with incense mixtures. During the Tang dynasty, the incense trade thrived. Examples of ancient literature such as 『千金要方』, 『香譜』, 『香乘』 describe how to make incense for perfuming clothes and how to perfume clothes. 『桂海虞衡志』 and 『諸蕃志』 shows trade partners and goods. Incense was introduced to Korea alongside Buddhist culture. 『買新羅物解』 shows Silla traded incense with Japan. One of the trade goods recorded in 『買新羅物解』 is perfuming cloth incense (熏衣香), which establishes that Silla performed perfuming clothes at that time. During the Goryeo dynasty, Goryeo exported musk as well as ginseng. The royal family burned incense from the Song royal family. Noblewomen preferred sachets. The use of this dress continued into the Joseon dynasty. 『買新羅物解』 showed that Japan imported incense from Silla. 『The tale of Genji』 illustrates Heian nobles' incense culture, perfuming clothes culture, and trade of incense. Perfuming clothes tools became essential articles for marriage purposes and it developed in a practical shape. The Champa had a perfuming clothes culture. It is described on 『諸蕃志』. As Agilawood is found in Tongking, and Tongking was neighbor to the Champa and China, they might have had a perfuming clothes culture as well. Korea, China, Japan, and Vietnam shared a perfuming clothes culture. We can identify universality and commonality in the purpose of perfuming clothes, time of development, the method of making the incense mixture for perfuming clothes, the method of perfuming clothes, the tools, the gender of perfumer, and the type of herbs and spices.