• Proceedings of the Speleological Society Conference
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• 1993.07a
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• pp.155-159
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• 1993

중국에서는 동굴 탐험이 그다지 이루어지지 않은 상태이다. 남부의 귀주와 광서지방에는 광대한 카르스트지대가 펼쳐진다. 광서지방의 탑모양의 카르스트는 바늘봉 같은 특이한 풍경을 이루어, 옛날 그림에도 자주 묘사되고있다. 하나하나가 탑모양의 석회암에는, 짧은 동굴이 벌집처럼 발달하고 있다. 귀주지방에도 넓은 석회암대지가 있는데, 많은 큰 하천이 지하를 흐르면서, 멋진 동굴이 발달되어 있다. 귀주의 두세개의 동굴은 상당한 규모의 동굴이 있는데 높이, 폭 모두 30m 이상이 되는 것도 있다. 중국에 가장 유명한 동굴은 반대로 북부지방의 많은 작은 동굴이다. 주거지로 옛날에 인공적으로 파진 동굴로, 황하분지에 많다. 부드러운 황도를 파서 예배당으로 이용된 것도 많다. 또 유명한 주거점의 동굴에서 북경원인의 화석이 발견되고 있다.(중략)

• Proceedings of the Speleological Society Conference
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• 1994.11a
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• pp.119-120
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• 1994

중국에서는 동굴 탐험이 그다지 이루어지지 않은 상태이다. 남부의 귀주와 광서지방에는 광대한 카르스트지대가 펼쳐진다. 광서지방의 탑모양의 카르스트는 바늘봉 같은 특이한 풍경을 이루어, 옛날 그림에도 자주 묘사되고 있다. 하나하나가 탑모양의 석회암에는, 짧은 동굴이 벌집처럼 발달하고 있다. 귀주지방에도 넓은 석회암대지가 있는데, 많은 큰 하천이 지하를 흐르면서, 멋진 동굴이 발달되어 있다. 귀주의 두세개의 동굴은 상당한 규모의 동굴이 있는데 높이, 폭 모두 30m 이상이 되는 것도 있다. 중국에 가장 유명한 동굴은 반대로 북부지방의 많은 작은 동굴이다. 주거지로 옛날에 인공적으로 파진 동굴로, 황하분지에 많다. 부드러운 황도를 파서 예배당으로 이용된 것도 많다. 또 유명한 주구점의 동굴에서 북경원인의 화석이 발견되고 있다.(중략)

• Proceedings of the Speleological Society Conference
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• 1997.10a
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• pp.89-90
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• 1997

중국에서는 동굴 탐험이 그다지 이루어 지지 않은 상태이다. 남부의 귀주와 광서지방에는 광대한 카르스트지대가 펼쳐진다. 광서지방의 탑모양의 카르스트는 바늘봉 같은 특이한 풍경을 이루어, 옛날 그림에도 자주 묘사되고 있다. 하나하나가 탑모양의 석회암에는, 짧은 동굴이 벌집처럼 발달하고 있다. 귀주지방에도 넓은 석회암대지가 있는데, 많은 큰 하천이 지하를 흐르면서, 멋진 동굴이 발달되어 있다. 귀주의 두세개의 동굴은 상당한 규모의 동굴이 있는데 높이, 폭 모두 30m 이상이 되는 것도 있다. 중국에 가장 유명한 동굴은 반대로 북부지방의 많은 작은 동굴이다. 주거지로 옛날에 인공적으로 파진 동굴로, 황하분지에 많다. 부드러운 황도를 파서 예배당으로 이용된 것도 많다. 또 유명한 주구점의 동굴에서 북경원인의 화석이 발견되고 있다.(중략)

• Journal of the Speleological Society of Korea
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• v.31 no.32
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• pp.97-106
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• 1992

중국에서는 동굴 탐험이 그다지 이루어지지 않은 상태이다. 남부의 귀주와 광서지방에는 광대한 카르스트지대가 펼쳐진다. 광서지방의 탑모양의 카르스트는 바늘봉 같은 특이한 풍경을 이루어, 옛날 그림에도 자주 묘사되고 있다. 하나하나가 탑모양의 석회암에는, 짧은 동굴이 벌집처럼 발달하고 있다. 귀주지방에도 넓은 석회암대지가 있는데, 많은 하천이 지하를 흐르면서, 멋진 동굴이 발달되어 있다. 귀주의 두세개의 동굴은 상당한 규모의 동굴이 있는데 높이, 폭 모두 30m 이상이 되는 것도 있다. 중국에 가장 유명한 동굴은 반대로 북부지방의 많은 작은 동굴이다. 주거지로 옛날에 인공적으로 파진 동굴로, 황하분지에 많다. 부드러운 황도를 파서 예배당으로 이용된 것도 많다. 또 유명한 주구점의 동굴에서 북경원인의 화석이 발견되고 있다.(중략)

• Journal of Korean Electronics
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• v.24 no.3
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• pp.28-29
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• 2004

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.33
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• pp.366-396
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• 2000

This research paper has examined the question of the year of the publication of the wood block print, Mukujeonggwang Dae Darani Gyeong(Pure light Dharani Sutra). Published in Korea sometime before 751, it is known to be the oldest existing document printed with wood blocks in the world. Recently, a Chinese scholar claimed that this sutra was translated into Chinese in 701 and printed in Reoyang, China, in 702. These claims have lead to international symposiums and research papers on the Mukujeonggwang Dae Darani Gyeong. However, although diverse opinions and research were presented by various scholars, they all seem to be far fetched and do not answer the essential question of the sutra. The evidence in historic records shows that the translation into Chinese was done in 704 and not in 701. After it was translated into Chinese, it came to Korea and was printed with wood blocks. When Sokkatap was built in 751, a copy was placed in the pagoda. Moreover, the inscription on the sarira casket states that the construction of the pagoda was based on the theory of Jotapsasang contained in the sutra. Thus this proves that Mukujeonggwang Dae Darani Gyeong had to have been printed before 751.

• Journal of the Daesoon Academy of Sciences
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• v.25_1
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• pp.189-229
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• 2015

동아시아의 19세기는 근대화 물결 안에서 변화의 시대였다. 중국, 한국, 일본은 식민지적 압박가운데 정치적 위기를 대면하였고 선진 문물과 기독교는 사회, 문화, 종교, 사상의 변화를 가져왔다. 신종교운동도 각 나라에서 다양한 형태와 철학으로 등장하였다. 이들의 근본적인 사상은 일반적으로 불교, 유교, 도교, 신교, 샤머니즘과 연관되어 있었다. 근대한국이 정치적 혼란을 겪을 때 여러 신종교들이 1860년을 전후로 나타났다. 나중에 천도교가 된 동학, 증산계, 대종교, 원불교 가운데 증산계 계통의 대순진리회는 사회-종교적인 영향력 차원에서 한국에서 가장 성공적인 신종교 운동이다. 그들은 상제가 스스로 구천에서 혼탁한 삼계를 회복하기 위해 직적 내려왔음을 따르고 있다. 그렇다면, 구천상제에 대한 가르침이 어떻게 이해되고 있을까? 대순진리회의 근본적인 우주관은 무엇일까? 또, 이것이 일본의 유명한 천리교와 중국(대만)의 대규모 일관도와 어떻게 구분될까? 이 논문은 청계탑의 상직적인 콘셉트 안에서 대순의 상제관과 우주관의 관계를 이해하고자 대순의 경전격인 전경, 현무경, 예화들인 심우도, 사신도, 12지신도 등을 탐구할 것이면 이 한국의 대표적인 신종교의 우주관을 천지공사와 후천의 가르침과 연관하여 논리적으로 접근해석 할 것이다.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.55 no.2
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• pp.24-48
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• 2022

Bronze mirrors found in pagodas were regarded as simple offerings and thus have received little attention in studies. Furthermore, the few studies on bronze mirrors enshrined in pagodas have focused on the line-engraved mirrors found in the pagodas of the Kingdom of Wuyue; therefore, it is difficult to understand the general characteristics of the bronze mirrors enshrined in the pagodas. This study assumes that the bronze mirrors found in many pagodas in the Kingdom of Wuyue and the Song dynasty were enshrined for a specific purpose. To explore this assumption and accurately understand the artifacts, this study focuses on the location and method of enshrinement. The number of bronze mirrors enshrined in pagodas increased during the Kingdom of Wuyue, with the mirrors expressing statues and inscriptions related to Buddhism rather than being simple offerings. This shows that the purpose of the bronze mirror changed. The influence of the Kingdom of Wuyue continued during the Song dynasty; however, the pattern of bronze mirror enshrinement changed due to the culture and social atmosphere of the time. The most common types of enshrined bronze mirrors were plain, and bronze mirrors from the Dang dynasty were also used consistently. Plain bronze mirrors were used more frequently in this period despite the lingering influence of the Kingdom of Wuyue because it was less laborious to engrave images and inscriptions such as the inscription of Buddha. Additionally, bronze mirrors were valued during this period because of the attention toward the imitation of the archaic bronze(仿古銅器) of the Song dynasty and the influence of the emperor. Moreover, it is believed that bronze mirrors were enshrined in pagodas as offerings as they were deemed valuable at the time. There was a change in the method of enshrining bronze mirrors in pagodas during the Kingdom of Wuyue and the Song dynasty. During this time, bronze mirrors that were positioned on the floor or in iron boxes were intentionally attached to walls or hung from the ceiling. This method was largely divided into two types: attaching to walls or the ceiling(嵌入鏡) and hanging from the ceiling(懸鏡). A typical example of hanging a bronze mirror from the ceiling can be seen in the Jingzhisa Temple Pagoda, and Teng County's Fushengsa Temple Pagoda contains an example of attaching a bronze mirror to the ceiling. The methods of hanging or attaching bronze mirrors to the ceiling were closely related to the methods employed in Chinese tombs. Song dynasty burial chambers had a high and wide structure, so to defend against evil spirits(辟邪用), bronze mirrors were used to protect the burial rooms. Bronze mirrors were, therefore, placed high to illuminate the burial room. This was achieved in the ways mentioned above. As underground chambers became wider and higher, mirrors also protected the important areas of the chambers and illuminated the interiors. Thus, it is believed that the methods of enshrining bronze mirrors in the pagodas during the Kingdom of Wuyue and the Song dynasty arose from the method of enshrining bronze mirrors in tombs at the time. Thereafter, pagodas, such as the Miaojuesa Temple Pagoda, in which the placement of a bronze mirror was actively considered from the design stage were constructed.

• (The)Study of the Eastern Classic
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• no.32
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• pp.391-424
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• 2008

A Buddhist relic deposit was discovered from the three storied stone pagoda which was called as Seokgatap of Bulguksa temple in Gyeongju in 1966. In this relic deposit, several clumped papers written in ink which were found from the pagoda. These manuscripts are one of the most valuable materials for understanding Korean Buddhism and Buddhist Art History. In this paper, I examined several terms for pagoda subsidiaries found in these manuscripts, which have not been known to us up to recently. In addition, I compared these terms to the real pagodas or pagoda images in Korea. The manuscripts from Seokgatap pagdoa were composed of three different kinds of records; (1) "Record for the Repair of Mugujeonggwangtap Pagoda (無垢淨光塔重修記, 1024)"; (2)"Record for the Reconstruction of West Pagoda (西石塔重修形止記, 1038); (3)"Lists of Donors for the Reconstruction of the Pagoda in Bulguksa temple (佛國寺塔重修布施名公衆僧小名記, 1038). The terminology describing pagoda was appeared in the first and the second records. In the "Record for the Repair of Mugujeonggwangtap Pagoda", there are more than ten terms, which are presumed to be the words describing some upper decorative parts of a stone pagoda. However, in the "Record for the Reconstruction of West Pagoda", there are fifteen terms which would describe the body and base parts of the Seokgatap pagoda. These new terms for pagoda subsidiaries appeared in the manuscripts of Seokgatap Pagoda are very significant materials in understanding Korean Buddhist Art, because they show the practical terms which were used in the eleventh century Buddhism of Korea, but never known to the modern academic world. The manuscripts of Seokgatap Pagoda have not been deciphered perfectly yet, so they have to be examined with more precise as well as with wider view of Buddist and Art History.

• Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society
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• v.15 no.8
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• pp.5369-5377
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• 2014

Korean pagodas were constructed in the shape of a wood pagoda, brick pagoda, stone pagoda, etc. On the other hand, the currently remaining traditional pagodas are those having nonflammable materials, such as brick, stone, etc. Compared to the stone pagoda, there is data regarding brick pagodas, but there is little literature data on how to construct these pagodas. This appears to be because there are relatively few Korean brick pagodas currently remaining, they are locally restricted, the material limit is not overcome, pagoda's historical and regional problems have not been analyzed, and pagoda construction is centered on pagoda construction. Therefore, this study examined the local cultural characteristics on the construction of brick pagodas. As a result, cultural exchange between Korea and China was performed through the silk road and there was a marine route for cultural exchange. Such exchange was shared with the East Asia area as well, which can be found by comparing remains at related areas. Exchange with China can be mentioned as the selective exchange of local powers as well as blind learning. Second, brick pagoda were constructed in Korea because of the good quality soil easily. Uisang's Hwaeomjong was negotiated with the main power not agreeing with Buddhism, which was popularized and the local power. Third, brick pagoda construction was influenced by negotiation related between Balhae and Silla, in which the ethnic influence was locally affected and could be mentioned as being a culturally selective result transferred from China. As a result, brick pagodas can be oriented by forming a unitary state rather than a small country within China's influence range as well as cultural transfer through the silk road.