Based on the Five-Element Theory (五行學說), traditional Korean medicine understands the human body by linking internal organs (五臟) with external sensory organs (五官). This study explored the relationship between the ear (耳) and the kidney (腎) from an integrative East-West medical perspective, focusing on kidney essence storage (腎藏精) and kidney regulation of water (腎主水), and examined the concept that the kidney governs the ear (腎主耳). From a physiological perspective, structural and functional features shared by the ear and kidney were analyzed, emphasizing embryology, endocrine function, and fluid metabolism. From a pathological perspective, the association between kidney dysfunction and auditory disorders was investigated, considering genetic factors and pathophysiological mechanisms. Based on these findings, the relationship between the ear and kidney was reinterpreted from a traditional medical viewpoint, confirming their close physiological and pathological connection. This study highlights the importance of linking internal organs and sensory organs in traditional medicine and suggests the potential of treating auditory disorders by modulating kidney function. Furthermore, further research is needed to clarify the molecular and clinical mechanisms underlying the interaction between these two organs.

Competency-Based Medical Education (CBME) emphasizes developing practical clinical skills beyond theoretical knowledge, yet students in clerkships often face limited opportunities to directly engage with patients due to concerns about safety, privacy, and ethics. These constraints can leave graduates insufficiently prepared for clinical practice. Although Korean medicine education has adopted performance assessments such as CPX and OSCE, simulation-based training remains underdeveloped. This study evaluated the educational experience and satisfaction of students participating in a digital clinical simulation curriculum at Pusan National University School of Korean Medicine. The program comprised three modules: structured history-taking for dizziness patients, physical examination with simulators, and patient education through peer role-play. Fifteen students in clinical preparatory stages participated, and post-training online surveys assessed satisfaction with the program, perceived usefulness for clinical clerkship preparation, and feedback on each training component. Thirteen students responded (86.7% response rate). Overall satisfaction was high, with 84.6% reporting improved readiness for clerkship. Simulators were valued for providing comprehensive vital signs and pathological findings, while role-play enhanced communication skills. Students highlighted structured content and practical learning opportunities but noted the short duration and limited practice with traditional procedures as drawbacks. In conclusion, Digital clinical simulation combining simulators and role-play was perceived by students as a useful approach to enhance their clinical competence and confidence prior to real patient encounters, particularly in contexts where patient access is limited. Future development should expand skills training, extend program duration, and establish standardized examinations, with multi-center studies recommended to confirm and generalize these findings.

Herbal medicines present a promising therapeutic alternative for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), overcoming the limited efficacy and significant adverse effects associated with conventional drugs. This scoping review aims to summarize preclinical evidence on the use of herbal medicines in ASD treatment, focusing on types of animal models, intervention characteristics, behavioral outcomes, and mechanisms of action. A literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for studies published up to February 2025, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. This review included studies that were published in English and focused on herbal medicines in animal models of ASD, with evaluation of ASD-related behaviors. Quality assessment of the included studies was performed according to the Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments (ARRIVE) guidelines 2.0. Fifty-four studies met the inclusion criteria, with 72% published from 2021 to 2025, predominantly in Asian countries (83%). Chemically induced models, particularly valproic acid-induced models (43%), were the most utilized. Single compounds (69%) were investigated more frequently than herbal extracts (22%) or traditional formulations (7%). Oral administration (48%) and therapeutic strategies (80%) were the predominant treatments. Behavioral assessments focused on social (78%) and anxiety-like behaviors (74%), with the hippocampus (43%) and cerebellum (28%) being the most frequently examined. Antioxidant (48%) and anti-inflammatory (39%) activities were the principal therapeutic mechanisms. Safety reporting was deemed to be inadequate in 81% of studies. These findings indicate that herbal medicines improve ASD symptoms primarily through modulating oxidative stress and inflammation. Future studies should address safety profiling and expanded mechanistic investigations for clinical translation.

Gastrodia elata (GE), a traditional medicinal herb rich in gastrodin, is known for its neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties. This study investigated the effects of standardized GE extract on scopolamine-induced memory impairment and its underlying mechanisms. Various concentrations of GE extract administration significantly improved learning and memory performance in the Morris Water Maze and Barnes Maze tests. GE extract also reduced hippocampal acetylcholinesterase activity elevated by scopolamine, restored BDNF(Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor) expression and CREB(Cyclic AMP Response Element-Binding protein) phosphorylation, and normalized MAPK(Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase) signaling through decreased ERK(Extracellular signal-Regulated Kinase) and JNK(c-Jun N-terminal Kinase) activation. GE extracts also suppressed scopolamine-induced increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines. These effects were most prominent in the GE200(200mg/kg GE extracts) and GE500(500mg/kg GE extracts) groups and were comparable to donepezil. These findings suggest that Gastrodia elata extract ameliorates scopolamine-induced cognitive deficits through cholinergic enhancement, neuroplasticity support, MAPK regulation, and anti-inflammatory actions.

Obesity is associated with adipose tissue expansion and chronic low-grade inflammation, contributing to insulin resistance and metabolic disorders. Polygonum cuspidatum root contains bioactive compounds with reported anti-inflammatory and metabolic regulatory effects, but its impact on adipocyte differentiation remains unclear. This study evaluated the effects of P. cuspidatum root extract (PCE) on adipogenesis and inflammation in OP9 cells. OP9 cells were differentiated into adipocytes and treated with PCE at non-cytotoxic concentrations. Lipid accumulation was assessed by Oil Red O staining. Expression of adipogenic markers (PPARγ, C/EBPα), lipogenic enzyme (ACC), and phosphorylated AMPK was measured by qRT-PCR and Western blot. NF-κB phosphorylation and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6) were also analyzed. PCE significantly reduced lipid accumulation and decreased expression of PPARγ, C/EBPα, and ACC, while increasing AMPK phosphorylation. PCE also inhibited NF-κB activation and reduced TNF-α and IL-6 expression and secretion, indicating concurrent anti-adipogenic and anti-inflammatory effects. PCE may be associated with decreased adipocyte differentiation and lipid accumulation through the PPARγ-C/EBPα-ACC pathway and may reduce inflammation through NF-κB-TNF-α/IL-6-related signaling. These dual actions suggest PCE as a promising functional food ingredient or therapeutic adjuvant for obesity and related metabolic disorders, warranting further in vivo study.

To evaluate real-world utilization patterns and short-term clinical changes associated with Korean medicine (KM) treatments in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). In this single-arm prospective observational study, 24 idiopathic PD patients were enrolled from September to November 2024. Patients were primarily classified as having qi-blood deficiency, with additional yang deficiency in 12 patients (52.2%) and kidney-yang deficiency in 1 patient (4.3%). Individualized KM treatments-including acupuncture, herbal medicine, and temporomandibular joint balancing therapy (TBT)-were provided. UPDRS Parts II and III, EQ-5D-5L index, and EQ-VAS were assessed at baseline and after 4 weeks. Twenty-three patients completed follow-up. Utilization rates were 95.7% for acupuncture, 91.3% for herbal medicine, and 43.5% for TBT. Most patients (91.3%) received multimodal KM treatment, with 47.8% receiving acupuncture plus herbal medicine and 43.5% receiving acupuncture, herbal medicine, and TBT. UPDRS II improved from 9.87 ± 5.57 to 8.04 ± 5.64, and UPDRS III from 14.35 ± 10.12 to 11.13 ± 9.67 (both p<0.001). EQ-5D-5L index improved from 0.76±0.10 to 0.80±0.07 (p=0.016), while EQ-VAS increased from 68.91±16.92 to 71.74±14.74 (p=0.342). KM treatments-particularly when delivered as multimodal therapy-were associated with short-term improvements in motor function and modest gains in quality of life in PD patients. Larger controlled studies are needed to validate these findings.

Functional dyspepsia (FD) is a common condition diagnosed by chronic symptoms like postprandial fullness or epigastric pain, complicated by diverse pathophysiological mechanisms. This retrospective study analyzed 247 FD patients (Mar 2010-May 2025) who had chronic dyspepsia (≥3 months) and prior esophagogastroendoscopy(EGD), along with electrogastrography (EGG) results, to inform diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Of the patients (mean age 49.98±14.84 years), 79.8% reported bloating, and 69.9% reported two or more symptoms. Data collected included EGD results (gastritis, esophagitis, or normal), 36.4% had normal EGD findings. Multivariable logistic regression showed that esophagitis was significantly associated with heartburn (OR=2.62) and regurgitation (OR=2.47). Furthermore, multivariable linear regression analysis of EGG indices revealed that symptoms such as vomiting (postprandial ch1) and regurgitation (postprandial ch2) were associated with increased bradygastria ratios. Heartburn was associated with an increased postprandial ch4 arrhythmia ratio (B=5.073). FD patients frequently exhibit overlapping symptoms and coexisting conditions like esophagitis and gastric motility issues. Clinicians should consider these overlapping diagnoses and gastric motility problems when patients report symptoms like heartburn and regurgitation with chronic dyspepsia.

This study applies Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) and Davis's Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to characterize generative AI use among students in a College of Korean Medicine (KM) and to analyze perception differences by clinical practicum experience. A cross-sectional, mixed-methods survey was conducted with 126 students: 72 pre-clerkship Year 1-3 students (before university hospital practicum) and 54 clerkship Year 4 students (during practicum). The questionnaire covered five domains: (1) experience, level, and purposes of generative AI use; (2) expectations, concerns, and solutions for AI in KM clinical and educational contexts; (3) trust and validation strategies; (4) legal and ethical issues; and (5) overall concerns, mitigation strategies, and anticipated benefits. Quantitative items were analyzed with frequency and descriptive statistics, and free-text responses with thematic analysis. Most students regarded generative AI as an information and learning support tool and articulated the need for structured AI education. Technology-acceptance attitudes differed by practicum status: pre-clerkship students expected support for clinical reasoning and evidence-based decision-making, whereas clerkship students emphasized patient education and clinical communication. Major concerns across cohorts included reliability and accuracy, algorithmic bias, legal/ethical accountability, and the risk that overreliance could weaken self-directed learning and critical thinking. Overall, the findings demonstrate that practicum experience shapes acceptance and envisioned uses of generative AI and support a staged, ELT-based integration model: critical appraisal and creative reconstruction in pre-clerkship years, and safe, patient-facing applications with explicit validation and governance in clerkship. These implications can guide curriculum design and faculty development for responsible AI adoption in KM education.

The Physiological Society of Korean Medicine (大韓東醫生理學會, PSKM) was established on November 28, 1975. For the following 50 years, the Society stood at the forefront of the development of the Physiology of Korean Medicine (韓醫生理學, PKM). The academic foundations for PKM were laid by Yoon Gil-Young, and Kim Wan-Hee subsequently developed into a physiology based on the Neo Medicine Discourse(第3醫學論) and Analogical Function System(類機能體系). From the 1950s to the 1970s, the efforts of these two scholars enabled the field of PKM to play a pioneering role within the Korean medicine community, leading the discourse on the development of Korean Medicine. However, the 'scientific and modernized PKM' advocated by these two scholars faded during the 1980s and 1990s. This paper reviews the current state of PKM as PSKM marks its 50th anniversary, and considers the direction the Society should take. It emphasizes the need to continue the academic lineage of the 'scientific and modernized PKM', which faded after Yoon Gil-Young and Kim Wan-Hee, and advocates for changes in PKM to meet contemporary demands. Furthermore, it argues that this work should be centered around the Society.

The processes that Korean Medicine(KM) and western medicine have developed their respective disciplines and expanded their organizations were reviewed from an integrative perspective. Based on this review, current strategies for expanding the scope of practice of the KM field were derived. In KM, the goal of integrative medical education is to provide standardized interpretations of commonly accepted fundamental KM theories and integrative understanding methods between modern medicine. Historically, from the early stages of KM's history, encompassing the formation of the Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon and Treatise on Cold Damage and Miscellaneous Diseases, and throughout the entire period up to the present, there has been a continuous process of integrating heterogeneous medicinal knowledge and medical theories. As has been the case so far, integration is to strengthen the 'scientific principles' requested by the government and courts to define and identify 'Korean medical practices'. Therefore integration is an indispensable element for the advancement of medical association and medicine itself, and a concrete consensus among KM members regarding the methods of integration is essential to achieve it.

This study examines the formation and development of Korean Medical Physiology textbooks, which form the foundation of education in Korean medicine colleges, and proposes future directions for teaching this subject. It analyzes the academic characteristics of early textbooks, focusing on Yoon Gil-young's New Lectures on Oriental Medical Physiology (1961) and Kim Wan-hee's General Introduction to New Physiology (1972), and compares the structural and theoretical changes from the first edition (1993) to the third edition (2024) of Dongui Physiology. The analysis shows that early textbooks attempted to integrate Western physiological concepts with traditional theories such as Yin-Yang and the Five Phases, but since the 1970s, the influence of Chinese medicine has weakened Korea's own direction in physiology, leading to a stronger emphasis on traditional theories. Dongui Physiology has since established academic consistency as a standard textbook across all colleges of Korean medicine, yet the interpretive linkage between traditional theories and modern life sciences remains insufficient. This study suggests that education in Korean medical physiology should move beyond the mere succession of traditional theories to reconstruct the Korean medical view of life in modern biomedical terms. It also emphasizes the need to strengthen clinical applicability and establish an integrative physiological framework based on Korean medical theory, thereby contributing to the development of personalized and integrative medicine.

This study investigated integration methodologies to foster academic responses and development of Korean medicine with the modern medical science under the scientistic shifts of the contemporary medical market. The fundamental principle for an integrative understanding methodology lies not in the problem of incommensurability, but rather in overcoming it through the process of adjusting the scope of observation and recognition of subjects, followed by comparative and consilient interpretation to identify the common basis of phenomena. First, the structural and functional foundations are presented as common constituent elements of both medicine. Within this, structure is categorized into matter, visceral organs, connective tissue, sensory organs, and communication-regulation systems, thereby sharing a structure platform between Korean and Western medicine. Where direct corresponding terms or concepts are absent, such as Qi(氣) and Ying(營), Wei(衛), and Shen(神), conceptual interfaces should be created for mutual interpretation. The seven core idea of Korean medicine are Taegeuk, Yin-Yang, Three poles(三才), Four types (四象), Five phases(五行), Three yin three yang(三陰三陽), and Human-nature correspondence theory. They are presented with various explanatory models. As an example of Yin-Yang model, the double-layer balance model, internal-external Yin-Yang model, globe Yin-Yang model can enhance the efficiency of explanation in the education and clinical practice of Korean medicine theory and be significantly utilized for the consilience of the two medicines.

This paper attempts to connect Korean medicine and medical theory regarding the space of the body. Korean medicine explains the relationship between people and their environment, the five organs-the five bodies, the five senses, as well as the structure and function of the body through the concept of internal and external(內外). The cell membrane and the receptor-integration center-reactor system, which separate the inside and outside and regulate the exchange of substances and energy and detect changes in the external environment, can be explained through the concept of internal and external. The metabolic process through bodily fluids seems to recognize the space of the body as a place where qi(氣) is expressed based on body fluids, and explain it through the concept of the triple burner in terms of body fluid metabolism, which is expressed through the bladder and the functions of the five organs.

Yangsaeng-geriatric physiology is a specialized subfield of traditional East Asian medicine that integrates the physiological characteristics of aging with preventive strategies based on health(Yangsaeng). While advances in biomedicine primarily infection focused and surgical interventions have extended life expectancy, the prevalence of chronic diseases such as hypertension, diabetes, cancer, and dementia has surged. This epidemiological shift exposes the limitations of conventional treatment oriented approaches and underscores the need for 'Medicine 3.0', a paradigm emphasizing early intervention and comprehensive management of exercise, nutrition, sleep, and emotional well-being. In contrast to the Cartesian dualism underpinning modern medicine, Korean medicine offers a holistic foundation rooted in harmony between humans and nature, Sasang Constitutional Medicine(SCM) for personalized care, and Yangsaeng for self directed health maintenance. This study examines the conceptual intersection of future medicine discourse with Yangsaeng and Sasang constitutional theories, proposing a new framework for geriatric physiology and individualized health management and informing the modern reinterpretation of foundational Korean medicine theories. Consequently, this paper suggest that Yangsaeng geriatric physiology warrants renewed attention as an integrated mind-body framework. By prioritizing prevention, personalization, and self-care, this discipline presents a valuable medical model aligned with the goals of extending healthy life expectancy in an aging society.