Acknowledgement
This study was supported by grants from Daegu Metropolitan City in 2015-2019.
References
- GBD 2017 Diet Collaborators. Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990-2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet 2019;393:1958-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30041-8
- Okayama A, Okuda N, Miura K, Okamura T, Hayakawa T, Akasaka H, Ohnishi H, Saitoh S, Arai Y, Kiyohara Y, et al. Dietary sodium-to-potassium ratio as a risk factor for stroke, cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in Japan: the NIPPON DATA80 cohort study. BMJ Open 2016;6:e011632. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011632
- Mente A, O'Donnell M, Rangarajan S, McQueen M, Dagenais G, Wielgosz A, Lear S, Ah ST, Wei L, Diaz R, et al. Urinary sodium excretion, blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and mortality: a community-level prospective epidemiological cohort study. Lancet 2018;392:496-506. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31376-X
- Li Y, Huang Z, Jin C, Xing A, Liu Y, Huangfu C, Lichtenstein AH, Tucker KL, Wu S, Gao X. Longitudinal change of perceived salt intake and stroke risk in a Chinese population. Stroke 2018;49:1332-9. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.117.020277
- Umesawa M, Iso H, Fujino Y, Kikuchi S, Tamakoshi A; JACC Study Group. Salty food preference and intake and risk of gastric cancer: the JACC Study. J Epidemiol 2016;26:92-7. https://doi.org/10.2188/jea.je20150023
- Deckers IA, van Engeland M, van den Brandt PA, Van Neste L, Soetekouw PM, Aarts MJ, Baldewijns MM, Keszei AP, Schouten LJ. Promoter CpG island methylation in ion transport mechanisms and associated dietary intakes jointly influence the risk of clear-cell renal cell cancer. Int J Epidemiol 2017;46:622-31. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyw266
- Faraco G, Hochrainer K, Segarra SG, Schaeffer S, Santisteban MM, Menon A, Jiang H, Holtzman DM, Anrather J, Iadecola C. Dietary salt promotes cognitive impairment through tau phosphorylation. Nature 2019;574:686-90. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1688-z
- Horikawa C, Yoshimura Y, Kamada C, Tanaka S, Tanaka S, Hanyu O, Araki A, Ito H, Tanaka A, Ohashi Y, et al. Dietary sodium intake and incidence of diabetes complications in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: analysis of the Japan Diabetes Complications Study (JDCS). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014;99:3635-43. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-4315
- Suzuki A, Katoh H, Komura D, Kakiuchi M, Tagashira A, Yamamoto S, Tatsuno K, Ueda H, Nagae G, Fukuda S, et al. Defined lifestyle and germline factors predispose Asian populations to gastric cancer. Sci Adv 2020;6:eaav9778. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav9778
- Shin SJ, Lim CY, Rhee MY, Oh SW, Na SH, Park Y, Kim CI, Kim SY, Kim JW, Park HK. Characteristics of sodium sensitivity in Korean populations. J Korean Med Sci 2011;26:1061-7. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2011.26.8.1061
- Merino J, Guasch-Ferre M, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Corella D, Estruch R, Fito M, Ros E, Aros F, Bullo M, Gomez-Gracia E, et al. Is complying with the recommendations of sodium intake beneficial for health in individuals at high cardiovascular risk? Findings from the PREDIMED study. Am J Clin Nutr 2015;101:440-8. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.096750
- World Health Organization. Guideline: sodium intake for adults and children [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2012 [cited 2020 November 23]. Available from: https://www.who.int/elena/titles/guidance_summaries/sodium_intake/en/.
- World Health Organization. Global action plan for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases 2013-2020 [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013 [cited 2019 April 25]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/94384/9789241506236_eng.pdf ?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
- Breslin PA. An evolutionary perspective on food and human taste. Curr Biol 2013;23:R409-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.010
- Puska P, Vartiainen E, Tuomilehto J, Salomaa V, Nissinen A. Changes in premature deaths in Finland: successful long-term prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Bull World Health Organ 1998;76:419-25.
- Holdsworth M, Haslam C, Raymond NT. Does the heartbeat award scheme change employees' dietary attitudes and knowledge? Appetite 2000;35:179-88. https://doi.org/10.1006/appe.2000.0351
- He FJ, Brinsden HC, MacGregor GA. Salt reduction in the United Kingdom: a successful experiment in public health. J Hum Hypertens 2014;28:345-52. https://doi.org/10.1038/jhh.2013.105
- World Action on Salt & Health. World Action on Salt & Health in USA [Internet]. London: Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine, Queen Mary University of London; 2020 [cited 2020 November 23]. Available from: http://www.worldactiononsalt.com/worldaction/north-america/usa/.
- World Action on Salt & Health. World Action on Salt & Health in Korea [Internet]. London: Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine, Queen Mary University of London; 2020 [cited 2020 November 23]. Available from: http://www.worldactiononsalt.com/worldaction/asia/korea/.
- Korea Health Industry Development Institute. National Food & Nutrition Statistics 2019: based on 2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [Internet]. Cheongju: Korea Health Industry Development Institute; 2019 [cited 2022 February 17]. Available from: https://www.khidi.or.kr/kps/dhraStat/result16?menuId=MENU01670&gubun=&year=2019&category=sodium.
- Ministry of Health and Welfare. 1st National nutrition management basic plan 2012-2016 [Internet]. Sejong: Ministry of Health & Welfare; 2012 [cited 2019 November 21]. Available from: http://www.korea.kr/common/download.do?tblKey=EDN&fileId=205580.
- Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. Guidelines for operating and managing sodium reduction restaurants 2018 [Internet]. Cheongju-si: Ministry of Food and Drug Safety; 2017 [cited 2019 September 27]. Available from: https://www.foodsafetykorea.go.kr/portal/board/boardDetail.do?menu_no=2880&bbs_no=bbs110&ntctxt_no=1065772&menu_grp=MENU_NEW05.
- Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency. Korea Health Statistics 2020: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VIII-2) [Internet]. Cheongju: Ministry of Health and Welfare.
- Ma J, Lee S, Kim K, Lee YK. Sodium reduction in South Korean restaurants: a Daegu-based intervention project. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2020;29:404-13.
- Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. Restaurant menu nutrient book 2012-2017. Cheongju: Ministry of Food and Drug Safety; 2019 [cited 2019 October 21]. Available from: https://www.foodsafetykorea.go.kr/portal/board/board.do?menu_grp=MENU_NEW05&menu_no=3601&id%20x_1=8.
- Moran AJ, Ramirez M, Block JP. Consumer underestimation of sodium in fast food restaurant meals: results from a cross-sectional observational study. Appetite 2017;113:155-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.02.028
- Nakadate M, Ishihara J, Iwasaki M, Kitamura K, Kato E, Tanaka J, Nakamura K, Ishihara T, Shintani A, Takachi R. Effect of monitoring salt concentration of home-prepared dishes and using low-sodium seasonings on sodium intake reduction. Eur J Clin Nutr 2018;72:1413-20. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-017-0053-2
- Kim SH, Kim MS, Lee MS, Park YS, Lee HJ, Kang S, Lee HS, Lee KE, Yang HJ, Kim MJ, et al. Korean diet: characteristics and historical background. J Ethn Food 2016;3:26-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2016.03.002
- Shim E, Ryu HJ, Hwang J, Kim SY, Chung EJ. Dietary sodium intake in young Korean adults and its relationship with eating frequency and taste preference. Nutr Res Pract 2013;7:192-8. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2013.7.3.192
- Bobowski N. Shifting human salty taste preference: potential opportunities and challenges in reducing dietary salt intake of Americans. Chemosens Percept 2015;8:112-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12078-015-9179-6
- Lee J, Park S. Management of sodium-reduced meals at worksite cafeterias: perceptions, practices, barriers, and needs among food service personnel. Osong Public Health Res Perspect 2016;7:119-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrp.2015.12.011
- Musicus AA, Moran AJ, Lawman HG, Roberto CA. Online randomized controlled trials of restaurant sodium warning labels. Am J Prev Med 2019;57:e181-93.
- Wolfson JA, Moran AJ, Jarlenski MP, Bleich SN. Trends in sodium content of menu items in large chain restaurants in the U.S. Am J Prev Med 2018;54:28-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.08.018
- Murphy SA, Weippert MV, Dickinson KM, Scourboutakos MJ, L'Abbe MR. Cross-sectional analysis of calories and nutrients of concern in Canadian chain restaurant menu items in 2016. Am J Prev Med 2020;59:e149-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.05.005