Journal of Public Diplomacy

The Korean Association for Public Diplomacy (한국공공외교학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Neither External nor Multilateral: States' Digital Diplomacy During Covid-19

  • Received : 2021.07.22
  • Accepted : 2022.04.18
  • Published : 2022.06.30
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

How does a public health crisis play into the digital rhetoric of states? As Covid-19 is presenting a situation in which countries need to manage the international environment in a relatively short period, their practices could signal how digitization is going to influence public diplomacy in the longer run. This paper explores state public diplomacy in the context of a public health crisis. It develops a theoretical framework of public diplomacy on social media through how and what states communicated during the first year of the Covid-19 pandemic. Through keyword and hashtag analyses, we identify two patterns. First, states usually regard social media as an instrument for domestic communication rather than public diplomacy. The international impact of messaging has not been prioritized or well-recognized. Social media platforms such as Twitter have global outreach and messaging can be seen by audiences all over the world. Messages intended for the domestic audience could have an international impact. Thus, any communication on digital platforms should consider their public diplomacy outcomes. Second, while social media platforms are claimed to be for networking at different levels, states tend to connect with other states rather than with international organizations during the pandemic. States do not like to mention international organizations like the WHO and the UN on Twitter. Instead, they were either busy dealing with internal problems or cooperating with another state to combat the virus.

Keywords

References

  1. Anholt, S. (2006). Competitive Identity: The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions. Palgrave Macmillan.
  2. Auer, C. (2016). Conceptualizing political crisis and the role of public diplomacy in crisis communication research. The handbook of international crisis communication research, 119-132.
  3. Avery, E. J., R. W. Lariscy, S. Kim, & T. Hocke. (2010). A Quantitative Review of Crisis Communication Research in Public Relations from 1991 to 2009. Public Relations Review, 36(2), 190-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.01.001
  4. Bjola, C., J. Cassidy, & I. Manor. (2019). Public Diplomacy in the Digital Age. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 14(1-2), 83-101. https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-14011032
  5. Brown, B. (2020). Search on Trump Twitter Archive. www.thetrumparchive.com
  6. Brown, S. J., & M. S. Studemeister. (2001). Virtual diplomacy: rethinking foreign policy practice in the information age. Information & Security, 7(2001), 28-44.
  7. Canadian Chief Public Health Officer [@CPHO_Canada]. (2020, May 5). To continue to slow the spread of #COVID19, it is vitally important that we all practice frequent #handwashing. This #STOPCleanYourHands Day [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/CPHO_Canada/status/1257748194903162891
  8. CCTV [@CCTV]. (2020, October 4). Once under strict lockdown due to the coronavirus epidemic, Wuhan, capital of Hubei Province, has seen an influx of tourists [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/CCTV/status/1312588301627514881
  9. Cheng, Y. (2018). How Social Media Is Changing Crisis Communication Strategies: Evidence from the Updated Literature. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 26(1), 58-68. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.12130
  10. Coombs, W. T. (2014). Ongoing Crisis Communication: Planning, Managing, and Responding. SAGE Publications. https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=CkkXBAAAQBAJ
  11. Coombs, W. T. (2017). Revising situational crisis communication theory. In Y. Jin & L. L. Austin (Eds.), Social Media and Crisis Communication (pp. 21-38). Routledge.
  12. Coombs, W. T. (2020). Public Sector Crises: Realizations from Covid-19 for Crisis Communication. Partecipazione e conflitto, 13(2), 990-1001.
  13. Coombs, W. T., & J. S. Holladay. (2012). The paracrisis: The challenges created by publicly managing crisis prevention. Public Relations Review, 38(3), 408-415. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2012.04.004
  14. Coombs, W. T., & S. J. Holladay. (2014). Strategic Intent and Crisis Communication: The Emergence of a Field. In D. Holtzhausen & A. Zerfass (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Strategic Communication. Routledge.
  15. Coppola, D. (2019). Online Grocery: Market share U.S. 2019-2023. Statista. https://www-statista-com/statistics/531189/online-grocery-market-share-united-states/
  16. Cross, M. K. D., & J. Melissen. (2013). European Public Diplomacy: Soft Power at Work. Palgrave Macmillan US.
  17. Cull, N. J. (2009). Public diplomacy: Lessons from the past. CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy, 12.
  18. Cull, N. J. (2013). The Long Road to Public Diplomacy 2.0: The Internet in US Public Diplomacy. International Studies Review, 15(1), 123-139. https://doi.org/10.1111/misr.12026
  19. Eriksson, M. (2014). Crisis Communication and Improvisation in a Digital Age. In D. Holtzhausen & A. Zerfass (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Strategic Communication. Routledge.
  20. Eriksson, M. (2018). Lessons for Crisis Communication on Social Media: A Systematic Review of What Research Tells the Practice. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(5), 526-551. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118x.2018.1510405
  21. Falkheimer, J., & M. Heide. (2010). Crisis Communicators in Change: From Plans to Improvisations. In W. T. Coombs & S. J. Holladay (Eds.), Handbook of crisis communication (pp. 511-526). Wiley-Blackwell.
  22. Feinerer, I., K. Hornik, & D. Meyer. (2008). Text mining infrastructure in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 25, 1-54.
  23. Fitzpatrick, K. (2007). Advancing the New Public Diplomacy: A Public Relations Perspective. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 2(3), 187-211. http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/187119007x240497
  24. Glaser, B., & A. L. Strauss. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Aldine Transaction.
  25. Graham, S. E. (2014). Emotion and Public Diplomacy: Dispositions in International Communications, Dialogue, and Persuasion1. International Studies Review, 16(4), 522-539. https://doi.org/10.1111/misr.12156
  26. Gregory, B. (2014). The Paradox of US Public Diplomacy: Its Rise and "Demise" (IPDGC Special Report, Issue.
  27. Grun, B., & K. Hornik. (2011). topicmodels: An R Package for Fitting Topic Models. Journal of Statistical Software, 40(13), 1-30.
  28. Hayden, C. (2012). The Rhetoric of Soft Power: Public Diplomacy in Global Contexts. Lexington Books.
  29. Hua, C. [@SpokespersonCHN]. (2020, October 21). China officially joined #COVAX and has pledged to make #vaccines a global public good, to ensure fair distribution of vaccines [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/SpokespersonCHN/status/1318933188098469890
  30. Kampf, R., I. Manor, & E. Segev. (2015). Digital Diplomacy 2.0? A Cross-national Comparison of Public Engagement in Facebook and Twitter. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 10(4), 331-362. https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191X-12341318
  31. Kleinnijenhuis, J., F. Schultz, S. Utz, & D. Oegema. (2015). The mediating role of the news in the BP oil spill crisis 2010: How US news is influenced by public relations and in turn influences public awareness, foreign news, and the share price. Communication Research, 42(3), 408-428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650213510940
  32. Liu, B. F., & J. D. Fraustino. (2014). Beyond image repair: Suggestions for crisis communication theory development. Public Relations Review, 40(3), 543-546. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2014.04.004
  33. Malecki, K. M. C., J. A. Keating, & N. Safdar. (2021). Crisis Communication and Public Perception of COVID-19 Risk in the Era of Social Media. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 72(4), 697-702. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa758
  34. Manor, I. (2016). Are we there yet: Have MFAs realized the potential of digital diplomacy?: Results from a cross-national comparison. Diplomacy and Foreign Policy, 1(2), 1-110. https://doi.org/10.1163/24056006-12340002
  35. Manor, I. (2019). The Digitalization of Public Diplomacy. Palgrave MacMillan.
  36. Manor, I., & R. Crilley. (2019). The Mediatisation of MFAS: Diplomacy in the New Media Ecology. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 15(1-2), 66-92. https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-15101051
  37. Melton, J. (2020, October 2). 68% of shoppers buy groceries online for delivery during the pandemic. Digital Commerce 360. https://www.digitalcommerce360.com/2020/10/01/68-of-shoppers-buy-groceries-online-for-home-delivery-during-the-pandemic/
  38. Morrison, S. [@ScottMorrisonMP]. (2020a, March 31). Over $1.1 billion in Federal Government assistance for lower income Australians will hit bank accounts today. The first $750 payment [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/ScottMorrisonMP/status/1244787068061880321
  39. Morrison, S. [@ScottMorrisonMP]. (2020b, May 24). Thank you Australia. Please keep encouraging your friends and family to download the COVIDSafe app [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/ScottMorrisonMP/status/1264437110259384323
  40. Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs [@NorwayMFA]. (2020a, June 2). Norway warmly welcomes the @WorldBank strategy on Fragility, Conflict and Violence. We encourage the bank to further deepen its work in #FCV settings [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/NorwayMFA/status/1267899238614261760
  41. Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs [@NorwayMFA]. (2020b, June 4). #COVID19 forces us to work in new ways to reach those that are hit the hardest by economic downfall in [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/NorwayMFA/status/1268550657264562176
  42. Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs [@NorwayMFA]. (2020c, July 2). Norway welcomes the @UN #SecurityCouncil resolution on #COVID19 adopted by consensus. The support for @AntonioGuterres ' appeal for a global ceasefire is [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/NorwayMFA/status/1278553145455652865
  43. Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs [@NorwayMFA]. (2020d, September 22). To achieve our common goals, we must restore the multilateral system. No State can meet the challenges of climate change [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/NorwayMFA/status/1308436149879398401
  44. Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. Public Affairs.
  45. Nye, J. S. (2008). Public Diplomacy and Soft Power. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616(1), 94-109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716207311699
  46. Nye, J. S. (2011). The Future of Power. Public Affairs.
  47. Olsson, E.-K. (2013). Public diplomacy as a crisis communication tool. The Journal of International Communication, 19(2), 219-234. https://doi.org/10.1080/13216597.2013.838906
  48. Pamment, J. (2014a). Articulating Influence: Toward A Research Agenda for Interpreting the Evaluation of Soft Power, Public Diplomacy and Nation Brands. Public Relations Review, 40(1), 50-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2013.11.019
  49. Pamment, J. (2014b). The mediatization of diplomacy. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 9(3), 253-280. https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191X-12341279
  50. Pamment, J. (2018). Diplomacy and Digitization: A Profession Adapting to New Networks of Power. Revista Mexicana de Politica Exterior, May-August(113), 53-71.
  51. Polito, R. (2020, November 12). Monitor: Most of a year into the pandemic, the next normal is now (and online). New Hope Network. https://www.newhope.com/market-data-and-analysis/monitor-most-year-pandemic-next-normal-now-and-online
  52. Pompeo, M. [@SecPompeo]. (2020, March 12). We have been in frequent contact with our Allies, and will continue to engage with them as we fight the #Coronavirus [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/SecPompeo/status/1238097758193627137
  53. Potter, E. (2002). Canada and the New Public Diplomacy. International Journal, 58(1), 43-64. https://doi.org/10.2307/40203812
  54. Rawnsley, G. D. (2016). Introduction to "International Broadcasting and Public Diplomacy in the 21st Century". Media and Communication, 4(2), 42-45. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v4i2.641
  55. Redfield, R. R. [@CDCDirector]. (2020, July 15). While we encourage you to practice #PhysicalDistancing to slow the spread of #COVID19, it is equally important to continue monitoring [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/CDCDirector/status/1285668377034448896
  56. Schultz, F., S. Utz, & A. Goritz. (2011). Is the medium the message? Perceptions of and reactions to crisis communication via twitter, blogs and traditional media. Public Relations Review, 37(1), 20-27. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.12.001
  57. Seib, P. (2012). Real-Time Diplomacy: Politics and Power in the Social Media Era. Palgrave Macmillan.
  58. Sevin, E. (2017). Public Diplomacy and the Implementation of Foreign Policy in the US, Sweden and Turkey. Palgrave MacMillan.
  59. Sevin, E., & I. Manor. (2019). From embassy ties to Twitter links: Comparing offline and online diplomatic networks. Policy & Internet, 11(3), 324-343. https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.199
  60. Trudeau, J. [@JustinTrudeau]. (2020, September 22). More than ever before, the international community must join forces and step up its efforts to find solutions and uphold [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/JustinTrudeau/status/1308211868847276039
  61. Utz, S., F. Schultz, & S. Glocka. (2013). Crisis communication online: How medium, crisis type and emotions affected public reactions in the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Public Relations Review, 39(1), 40-46. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2012.09.010
  62. WHO. (2021). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. World Health Organization. Retrieved December 20 from https://covid19.who.int/
  63. Wu, D. (forthcoming). U.S. Public Diplomacy Towards China: Exercising Discretion in Educational and Exchange Programs. Palgrave Macmillan.
  64. Wu, D., & A. Yang. (2017). China's public diplomatic networks on the Ebola issue in West Africa: Issues management in a network society. Public Relations Review, 43(2), 345-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2017.02.013