Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Dr. S Baijnath for his assistance with the animal work and acknowledge the Biomedical Research Unit for their use of the facilities.
References
- Bremer L, Schramm C, Tiegs G. Immunology of hepatic diseases during pregnancy. Semin Immunopathol 2016;38:669-85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-016-0573-1
- Alese MO, Moodley J, Naicker T. Preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome, the role of the liver. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2021;34:117-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2019.1572737
- Mikolasevic I, Filipec-Kanizaj T, Jakopcic I, Majurec I, Brncic-Fischer A, Sobocan N, et al. Liver disease during pregnancy: a challenging clinical issue. Med Sci Monit 2018;24:4080-90. https://doi.org/10.12659/MSM.907723
- Valensise H, Vasapollo B, Gagliardi G, Novelli GP. Early and late preeclampsia: two different maternal hemodynamic states in the latent phase of the disease. Hypertension 2008;52:873-80. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.117358
- Frishman WH, Schlocker SJ, Awad K, Tejani N. Pathophysiology and medical management of systemic hypertension in pregnancy. Cardiol Rev 2005;13:274-84. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.crd.0000137738.16166.cc
- Koyama Y, Brenner DA. Liver inflammation and fibrosis. J Clin Invest 2017;127:55-64. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI88881
- Brown MA, Magee LA, Kenny LC, Karumanchi SA, McCarthy FP, Saito S, et al. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: ISSHP classification, diagnosis, and management recommendations for international practice. Hypertension 2018;72:24-43. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.117.10803
- Aggarwal PK, Chandel N, Jain V, Jha V. The relationship between circulating endothelin-1, soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 and soluble endoglin in preeclampsia. J Hum Hypertens 2012;26:236-41. https://doi.org/10.1038/jhh.2011.29
- Shibuya M. Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 (VEGFR-1/Flt-1): a dual regulator for angiogenesis. Angiogenesis 2006;9:225-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10456-006-9055-8
- Levine RJ, Maynard SE, Qian C, Lim KH, England LJ, Yu KF, et al. Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia. N Engl J Med 2004;350:672-83. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa031884
- Vallee A, Lecarpentier Y. TGF-β in fibrosis by acting as a conductor for contractile properties of myofibroblasts. Cell Biosci 2019;9:98. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13578-019-0362-3
- Venkatesha S, Toporsian M, Lam C, Hanai J, Mammoto T, Kim YM, et al. Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Nat Med 2006;12:642-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1429
- Adu-Gyamfi EA, Lamptey J, Duan F, Wang YX, Ding YB. The transforming growth factor β superfamily as possible biomarkers of pre-eclampsia: a comprehensive review. Biomark Med 2019;13:1321-30. https://doi.org/10.2217/bmm-2019-0208
- Toporsian M, Gros R, Kabir MG, Vera S, Govindaraju K, Eidelman DH, et al. A role for endoglin in coupling eNOS activity and regulating vascular tone revealed in hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia. Circ Res 2005;96:684-92. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.RES.0000159936.38601.22
- Munger JS, Sheppard D. Cross talk among TGF-β signaling pathways, integrins, and the extracellular matrix. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2011;3:a005017. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a005017
- Chambaz EM, Souchelnitskiy S, Pellerin S, Defaye G, Cochet C, Feige JJ. Transforming growth factors-beta s: a multifunctional cytokine family: implication in the regulation of adrenocortical cell endocrine functions. Horm Res 1996;45:222-6. https://doi.org/10.1159/000184792
- Lyall F, Simpson H, Bulmer JN, Barber A, Robson SC. Transforming growth factor-beta expression in human placenta and placental bed in third trimester normal pregnancy, preeclampsia, and fetal growth restriction. Am J Pathol 2001;159:1827-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63029-5
- August P, Leventhal B, Suthanthiran M. Hypertension-induced organ damage in African Americans: transforming growth factor-beta(1) excess as a mechanism for increased prevalence. Curr Hypertens Rep 2000;2:184-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-000-0080-5
- Dooley S, ten Dijke P. TGF-β in progression of liver disease. Cell Tissue Res 2012;347:245-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-011-1246-y
- Girling JC, Dow E, Smith JH. Liver function tests in pre-eclampsia: importance of comparison with a reference range derived for normal pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:246-50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.1997.tb11054.x
- Santillan MK, Santillan DA, Scroggins SM, Min JY, Sandgren JA, Pearson NA, et al. Vasopressin in preeclampsia: a novel very early human pregnancy biomarker and clinically relevant mouse model. Hypertension 2014;64:852-9. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.03848
- Bankir L, Bichet DG, Morgenthaler NG. Vasopressin: physiology, assessment 0and osmosensation. J Intern Med 2017;282:284-97. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12645
- Bourque CW. Central mechanisms of osmosensation and systemic osmoregulation. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008;9:519-31. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2400
- Burton GJ, Jauniaux E. Pathophysiology of placental-derived fetal growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2018;218(2S):S745-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2017.11.577
- Drawz PE, Rosenberg ME. Slowing progression of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl (2011) 2013;3:372-6. https://doi.org/10.1038/kisup.2013.80
- Caniggia I, Grisaru-Gravnosky S, Kuliszewsky M, Post M, Lye SJ. Inhibition of TGF-beta 3 restores the invasive capability of extravillous trophoblasts in preeclamptic pregnancies. J Clin Invest 1999;103:1641-50. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI6380
- Adu-Gyamfi EA, Ding YB, Wang YX. Regulation of placentation by the transforming growth factor beta superfamily. Biol Reprod 2020;102:18-26. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolre/ioz186
- Lafontaine L, Chaudhry P, Lafleur MJ, Van Themsche C, Soares MJ, Asselin E. Transforming growth factor Beta regulates proliferation and invasion of rat placental cell lines. Biol Reprod 2011;84:553-9. https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.110.086348
- Li Q. Transforming growth factor β signaling in uterine development and function. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2014;5:52. https://doi.org/10.1186/2049-1891-5-52
- Shaarawy M, El Meleigy M, Rasheed K. Maternal serum transforming growth factor beta-2 in preeclampsia and eclampsia, a potential biomarker for the assessment of disease severity and fetal outcome. J Soc Gynecol Investig 2001;8:27-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1071-5576(00)00091-5
- Perucci LO, Gomes KB, Freitas LG, Godoi LC, Alpoim PN, Pinheiro MB, et al. Soluble endoglin, transforming growth factor-Beta 1 and soluble tumor necrosis factor alpha receptors in different clinical manifestations of preeclampsia. PLoSOne 2014;9:e97632. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097632
- Huber A, Hefler L, Tempfer C, Zeisler H, Lebrecht A, Husslein P. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 serum levels in pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2002;81:168-71. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0412.2002.810214.x
- Peracoli MT, Menegon FT, Borges VT, de Araujo Costa RA, Thomazini-Santos IA, et al. Platelet aggregation and TGF-beta(1) plasma levels in pregnant women with preeclampsia. J Reprod Immunol 2008;79:79-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jri.2008.08.001
- Gregory AL, Xu G, Sotov V, Letarte M. Review: the enigmatic role of endoglin in the placenta. Placenta 2014;35 Suppl:S93-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.placenta.2013.10.020
- Scroggins SM, Santillan DA, Lund JM, Sandgren JA, Krotz LK, Hamilton WS, et al. Elevated vasopressin in pregnant mice induces T-helper subset alterations consistent with human preeclampsia. Clin Sci (Lond) 2018;132:419-36. https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20171059
- Harmon AC, Cornelius DC, Amaral LM, Faulkner JL, Cunningham MW Jr, Wallace K, et al. The role of inflammation in the pathology of preeclampsia. Clin Sci (Lond) 2016;130:409-19. https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20150702
- Sandgren JA, Deng G, Linggonegoro DW, Scroggins SM, Perschbacher KJ, Nair AR, et al. Arginine vasopressin infusion is sufficient to model clinical features of preeclampsia in mice. JCI Insight 2018;3:e99403. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.99403
- Schutt VA, Minuk GY. Liver diseases unique to pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2007;21:771-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpg.2007.05.004
- Bagnost T, Berthelot A, Alvergnas M, Miguet-Alfonsi C, Andre C, Guillaume Y, et al. Misregulation of the arginase pathway in tissues of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertens Res 2009;32:1130-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/hr.2009.153
- Berkowitz DE, White R, Li D, Minhas KM, Cernetich A, Kim S, et al. Arginase reciprocally regulates nitric oxide synthase activity and contributes to endothelial dysfunction in aging blood vessels. Circulation 2003;108:2000-6. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000092948.04444.C7
- Landmesser U, Drexler H. Endothelial function and hypertension. Curr Opin Cardiol 2007;22:316-20. https://doi.org/10.1097/HCO.0b013e3281ca710d
- Toque HA, Nunes KP, Rojas M, Bhatta A, Yao L, Xu Z, et al. Arginase 1 mediates increased blood pressure and contributes to vascular endothelial dysfunction in deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt hypertension. Front Immunol 2013;4:219. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2013.00219
- Bronte V, Zanovello P. Regulation of immune responses by L-arginine metabolism. Nat Rev Immunol 2005;5:641-54. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri1668
- Louis CA, Mody V, Henry WL Jr, Reichner JS, Albina JE. Regulation of arginase isoforms I and II by IL-4 in cultured murine peritoneal macrophages. Am J Physiol 1999;276:R237-42.
- Munder M, Eichmann K, Moran JM, Centeno F, Soler G, Modolell M. Th1/Th2-regulated expression of arginase isoforms in murine macrophages and dendritic cells. J Immunol 1999;163:3771-7.
- Chang CI, Zoghi B, Liao JC, Kuo L. The involvement of tyrosine kinases, cyclic AMP/protein kinase A, and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in IL-13-mediated arginase I induction in macrophages: its implications in IL-13-inhibited nitric oxide production. J Immunol 2000;165:2134-41. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.165.4.2134
- Arika WM, Nyamai DW, Osano KO, Ngugi MP, Njagi EN. Biochemical markers of in vivo hepatotoxicity. J Clin Toxicol 2016;6:e1000297.
- Dixon TF, Purdom M. Serum 5-nucleotidase. J Clin Pathol 1954;7:341-3. https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.7.4.341
- Carakostas MC, Power RJ, Banerjee AK. Serum 5'nucleotidase activity in rats: a method for automated analysis and criteria for interpretation. Vet Clin Pathol 1990;19:109-113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-165X.1990.tb00555.x
- Gowda S, Desai PB, Hull VV, Math AA, Vernekar SN, Kulkarni SS. A review on laboratory liver function tests. Pan Afr Med J 2009;3:17.
- Hyder MA, Hasan M, Mohieldein A. Comparative study of 5'-nucleotidase test in various liver diseases. J Clin Diagn Res 2016;10:BC01-3.
- Westbrook RH, Dusheiko G, Williamson C. Pregnancy and liver disease. J Hepatol 2016;64:933-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2015.11.030
- Shekhar S, Diddi G. Liver disease in pregnancy. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol 2015;54:475-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tjog.2015.01.004
- Froese AR, Shimbori C, Bellaye PS, Inman M, Obex S, Fatima S, et al. Stretch-induced activation of transforming growth factor-β1 in pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2016;194:84-96. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201508-1638OC
- Piera-Velazquez S, Mendoza FA, Jimenez SA. Endothelial to mesenchymal transition (EndoMT) in the pathogenesis of human fibrotic diseases. J Clin Med 2016;5:45. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5040045
- Douillet CD, Velarde V, Christopher JT, Mayfield RK, Trojanowska ME, Jaffa AA. Mechanisms by which bradykinin promotes fibrosis in vascular smooth muscle cells: role of TGF-beta and MAPK. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2000;279:H2829-37. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.2000.279.6.H2829