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Investigating Factors of Higher Education on Job Satisfaction, Globalization, and Hosting Country

  • Received : 2020.12.17
  • Accepted : 2021.02.05
  • Published : 2021.02.28
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Abstract

Purpose: Previous studies have rarely examined the role of higher education for human capital development in the case of Korea. The purpose of this study is to investigate effects of higher education for international students in globalized environment on job satisfaction, globalization, and hosting country. Research questions include the following: i) how do application and improvement on work, performance, self-confidence, and use of network affect job satisfaction; ii) how do leadership, policy improvement, public diplomacy, social responsibility and global competence affect globalization?; iii) how do affective, cognitive, and behavioral components affect attitude of hosting country? Research design, data, and methodology: Online survey and interviews were conducted. For quantitative research, this study applied factor and structural equational modeling, while for qualitative research, this study applied cognitive mapping and sentimental analysis. Results: This study found that most of proposed effects showed significant. The results showed consistent for quantitative and qualitative researches. Conclusions: The results implied that higher education in global environment plays a key role to enhance job satisfaction, globalization, and attitude toward the hosting country and contributes to foster international relations significantly. The results also implied that human capital development in globalized environment helps improve global network and public diplomacy.

Keywords

1. Introduction

Human capital plays a critical role in various fields such as economic growth, poverty reduction (Son, 2010), and well-fare. According to Tremblay, Lalancette, and Roseveare (2012), skills and human capital have become the backbone of economic prosperity and social well-being in the 21st century. Human capital development has been explored in the context of higher education. Dill and Van Vught (2010) addressed that higher education represents a critical factor in innovation and human capital development and plays a central role in the success and sustainability of the knowledge economy (Tremblay, Lalancette, & Roseveare, 2012).

Higher education is also referred to as “Student-asPartners (SaP) approach (Fortune, Borkovic, Bhopti, Somoza, Nhan, & Rangwala, 2019; Green, 2019) that described as a collaborative and reciprocal process through which all participants have the opportunity to contribute equally to curricular or pedagogical conceptualization, decision-making, implementation, investigation, or analysis” (Cook-Sather, Bovill, & Felten, 2014).

Human capital development in higher education has been paid attention by scholars. Previous studies on human capital development in higher education addressed changing landscape of higher education internationalization (Knight, 2013). Previous studies in higher education in global environment addressed effects of global citizenship that addressed distinct understanding of the role for the global citizen (Shultz, 2007). Studies examined effects of international higher education on conceptualization of global citizen (Lilley, Barker, & Harris, 2017), student engagement in international education (Green, 2019), and global citizen concept (Jooste & Heleta, 2017), which respect diversity (Oxfam, 2015). Lilley, Barker, and Harris (2017) also stated that international higher education experts conceptualizes the global citizen or ideal global graduate that underpinning values and mind-set they present. The purpose of this study is to explore effects of international students’ higher education on job satisfaction, globalization, and attitude toward the hosting country, the case of Korea that have been rarely explored in previous studies. This study investigated effects including global learning experience on work such as job satisfaction, global leadership skill improvement, and effects on hosting country. This study applied the following research questions: ⅰ) how do perceived application at work, improvement on work/organization/system, performance assessment, self-confidence, and use of network positively affect job satisfaction; ⅱ) how do perceive leadership skills, policy improvement, improved public diplomacy, social responsibility, and global competence positively affect globalization?; and ⅲ) how do perceived affection, cognition, and behavior about hosting country affect improved attitude of hosting country, Korea.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Human Capital Development Education

International collaboration in the field of higher education is becoming a beneficial way of developing countries to acquire human capital from more developed countries (Lönnqvist, Laihonen, Cai, & Hasanen, 2018). According to Kim (1998), human capital accumulation in a society covers two distinct and indispensable processes including the creation of knowledge and the embodiment of knowledge in a person. Kim (1998) also stated that for developing countries, importing advanced knowledge which was created by developed countries opens a new horizon for human capital accumulation. According to Perna, Orosz, Gopaul, Jumakulov, Ashirbekov, and Kishkentayeva (2014), international scholarship programs in higher education have established to train the administrative elite of some nations’ colonies in the early 20th century. Highly developed democratic countries applied international scholarship programs to counteract the ideological influence of the Communist with fund by intergovernmental agencies and private sponsors (Perna, et al., 2014; Varghese, 2008). According to Kim (2014), over the last two decades, global debate on ODA in education has paid attention by increasing the volume of aid. Korea allocated significant aid towards education sector, in particularly, 25% of total shares for higher education (Kim, 2013). ODA policies in Korea have focused on utilization of human resources in global environment with the many years of professional experience of KOICA (Min, 2018). Global scholarship programs have provided opportunities for higher education. International scholarship programs in higher education have existed for many years (Perna, et al., 2014).

2.2. Assessment of Human Capital Development

Previous studies have proposed various models to evaluate effects of human resource development and training. Models classified education effects based on stages. Well-known models include the following: ⅰ) Context, Input, Process, and Product from CIPP Evaluation Model (Robinson, 2002), ⅱ) Context, Input, Reaction, and Outcome from CIRO Model (Warr, Bird, & Rackham, 1970), ⅲ) Reaction, Learning, Behavior, and Result from Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, 1994, 1996), and ⅳ) Reaction, Learning, Behavior, Result, and Return of Investment from The Phillips ROI Model (Phillips, 2003). Characteristics of models include how to measure the effects, after only or before and after the education. Models that measured after the education addressed short and mid-term effects such as immediate and intermediate effect from CIPO model, job application and business impact from The Phillips Model, and behavior and results from Kirkpatrick Model, while models also proposed long-term effects such as ultimate effect from CIPO model (Warr, Bird, & Rackham, 1970) and ROI from The Phillips Model. For the assessment of ODA progress, previous studies have applied criteria including appropriateness, effectiveness, efficiency, impactful, and sustainability (Korea Institute for International Economic Policy, 2016).

2.3. Theoretical Background

Various studies defined human capital theory with different perspectives. Becker (1993) stated that human capital theory assumes that an individual decides to enroll in higher education in general or foreign education by considering economic benefits. According to Eide and Showalter (2010), human capital theory addressed that individuals invest in education in anticipation of a wide range of benefits, most empirical work has focused on the monetary rewards of increased earnings. Carneiro, Dearden, and Vignoles (2010) stated that human capital theory as the dominant paradigm in the economics of education suggests that education and training are investments that make individual genuinely more productive. Human capital theory states that an individual will undertake training when the present discounted value of the benefits of training exceeds the cost of training (McCall, Smith, & Wunsch, 2015). Wiers-Jenssen (2008) addressed that human capital theory predicts a positive relationship between schooling and the degree of labor market success. Allport (1954)’s contact theory addressed the means through which students might gain global, international, and intercultural competencies by interacting with international students on campus or by interacting with others while studying abroad (Soria & Troisi, 2014) also supports this study.

Human capital development in international higher education is also supported by the concept of neoliberalism. Lilley, Barker, and Harris (2017) addressed that the global citizen in higher education can be conceptualized through a neoliberal and transformative cosmopolitan lens by addressing capabilities of a broader mind-set. Shultz (2007) also highlighted a neoliberal approach as one of approaches for global education policies and global citizenship education. Previous studies also adopted signaling theory on education (Arrow, 1973; Spence, 1973) by addressing positive aspects on education from abroad with signal extracurricular skills such as language skills and knowledge of a foreign country and certain personal properties such as initiative or flexibility (Wiers-Jenssen, 2008).

3. Hypotheses Development

Lönnqvist, Laihonen, Cai, and Hasanen (2018) addressed effects of education export from the intellectual capital to a provider country, organization (e.g., a university or a company), and a customer (e.g., an institution or an individual) by examining the customers perspective and the provider’s perspective.

3.1. Effects of Application, Improvement on Work, Performance, Self-Confidence, and Use of Network on Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction is defined as “a pleasure or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (Locke, 1976). Previous studies discussed about issues of satisfaction (Paais & Pattiruhu, 2020) including job satisfaction (Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen, Le, & Do, 2020; Phuong, Khuong, Phuc, & Dong, 2018). Previous studies also examined the impact of education on job satisfaction. Mora, Garcia-Aracil, and Vila (2007) studied the effects of diverse education-related variables on job satisfaction scores using higher education graduates, while a study by Ueno and Krause (2018) addressed overeducated workers tend to be less satisfied in some environment. Badillo-Amador and Vila (2013) stated that the abilities, capacities, attitudes, and knowledge possessed by workers determine their levels of professional skill, which in turn in their current jobs, while skill mismatches appeared as key determinants of workers’ job satisfaction. Previous studies addressed that higher education affects employability skills such as interpersonal skills, communication skill, teamwork skills, career-related skills, and analytical skills and improve career-related benefits such as prospects and motivation (Potts, 2015). Potts (2015) also stated that international experiences contributed career capital, particularly with regard to the acquisition of soft skills such as cultural intelligence and intercultural communication. Levine, Christian, and Lyons (2013) posts that global managers’ higher education from accredited programs affects change in public organizations and leaderships skills successfully that are also learned in course curricula. This study hypothesized factors that might affect job satisfaction including application and improvement on work, performance, self-confidence, and use of network.

H1: Perceived applications on work positively affects job satisfaction.

H2: Perceived improvement on work positively affects job satisfaction.

H3: Perceived performance positively affects job satisfaction.

H4: Perceived self-confidence positively affects job satisfaction.

H5: Perceived use of network positively affects job satisfaction

3.2. Effects of Leadership Skills, Policy Analysis, Public Diplomacy, Social Responsibility, and Global Competence on Globalization

Wiers-Jenssen (2008) posited that internationalization and globalization are important characteristics of current development of society, and production of knowledge and higher education are no exception. Internationalization and globalization are often applied interchangeably, while globalization is more commonly applied in recent studies. Aktas, Pitts, Richards, and Silova (2017) stated that internationalization has become a growing trend in higher education worldwide and campus-wide internationalization includes global-citizenship programs that enhance students’ academic, professional, and personal development to help them better navigate a mode globalized world. Soria and Troisi (2014) addressed global/international coursework, interactions with international students and participation in global/international co-curricular activities help yield development of global, international, and intercultural competencies. Lönnqvist, Laihonen, and Cai (2018) found two separate effects on the internationalization of higher education including education export and intellectual capital.

Chen and Statosta (2000) highlighted central component of global citizenship by addressing intercultural sensitivity with effective interaction, dialogues, and participation in the multicultural societies. Shultz (2007) addressed that educating for global citizenship is a complex and contested concept and that educators who claim to be educating for global citizenship must be clear on the implications of their work. According to definition by Oxfam (2015), education for global citizenship is transformative, developing knowledge and understanding, skills, values and attitudes that learners need to participate fully in a globalized society and economy in a fast-changing and interdependent world. Caruana (2014) stated that developing graduates as global citizens is a central aim of the internationalized university with the premised notations of cosmopolitanism for international mobility. for Economic Development (2006) addressed that the importance of improving education in foreign languages and international studies for people should be informed to public including national leaders, political leaders, and education. After studying higher education in global environment that focused in the diverse subjects including public policy, development policy, and public management, this study posits that leadership skills including encourage employees and commitment, policy improvement skills including government trust, policy issues, and coordination, and public diplomacy skills including enhancing partnership, foreign policy, and build diplomacy will be improved and affected globalization. A study by Sprague and Percy (2014) analyzed the immediate and long-term impact of practicum experiences on students and found the improvement on policy analysis skills and general professional skills proven useful in most jobs. This study also posits that social responsibility concepts including interconnectedness, understanding global environment, and gender equality and global competence concepts including knowledge in global, cross-cultural, and work in international environment will be improved and affect globalized mindset. Therefore, this study hypothesized effects of perceived leadership skills, policy analysis improvement, public diplomacy, social responsibility and global competence on globalization.

H6: Perceived leadership skills positively affects perception on global leadership.

H7: Perceived policy analysis improvement positively affects perception on global leadership.

H8: Perceived public diplomacy positively affects perception on global leadership.

H9: Perceived social responsibility positively affects perception on global leadership.

H10: Perceived global competence positively affects perception on global leadership.

3.3. Effects on Hosting Country

Previous studies (Alharbi & Smith, 2018; Ha, Lee, & Shin, 2015) addressed effects of international education on cultural benefits to the hosting country. Ro, Lee, and Yoo (2003) indicated also that international students’ understanding of culture of host country has a positive impact on securing support for the hosting country. Nye (2004) stated that the educational exchange is likely to have soft power that makes others desire the same outcomes by co-opting rather than coercing them. Ro, Lee, and Yoo (2003) also stated that domestic students are likely to become interested in the language, culture, arts, society, and economy of other countries through interaction with international students, and thus will have the opportunity to develop a more global mindset.

This study addressed that impact of international in higher education on hosting country including changes of affection, cognition, and behavior after studied. Caruana (2014) addressed cultural mediator in higher education and stated that intercultural understanding is a pre-requisite of global citizenship. Aktas, Pitts, Richards, and Silova (2017) addressed importance of developing global competences in higher education in a variety of cultural contexts. This study posits that cultural experiences, improvement of knowledge on hosting country, emotional feelings via experiences, and involvement of local communities include outcomes of effects of international in higher education on hosting country. This study hypothesized effects of perceived affection, cognition, and behavior on image of hosting country, Korea.

H11: Perceived affection positively affects improved image of Korea.

H12: Perceived cognition positively affects improved image of Korea.

H13: Perceived behavior positively affects improved image of Korea.

4. Methodology

4.1. Qualitative Research

This study performed qualitative research using alumni from the same institution as for quantitative research. This study conducted both in-depth interviews and focus group interviews. After the pretest was conducted, wordings and structures were also modified. By classifying effects on job satisfaction, perception of global leadership, and hosting country, this study developed research questions for qualitative research. Research questions for major variable have been generated based on reviews and modification of assessment widely applied in previous studies (Kirkpatrick, 1994, 1996; Phillips, 2003; Robinson, 2002; Warr, Bird, & Rackham, 1970). For example, research questions for effects on job satisfaction, this study developed questions of skills such as capabilities, decision making, understanding issues and data that have been often discussed in previous studies. Questions also include promotional or new job opportunities, building network opportunities, job satisfaction, perceived global mind-set improvement, etc. The purpose of the qualitative research in this study is to draw inner feelings and opinions with open-ended approach. Further, results from qualitative research questions were applied to quantitative research. Therefore, qualitative research results of this study play a key role for stepping stone of quantitative research.

This study collected data from international alumni graduated from a higher educational institution offered master and Ph.D. degrees in globalized environment. Globalized educational environment in this study is defined that all classes are taught in same language such as English, communicate in same language, and share global cultures among diverse international students from different countries. A total of 354 respondents were participated in interviews. Scripted verbal data were applied for the analysis. In order to analyze qualitative data, this study applied Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis (CAQDAS) tools called NVivo. CAQDAS has capability to manage text data by categorizing them and providing solutions for interpretation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Merriam and Tisdell, (2016), software packages for qualitative research functions as marking text, building codebook, indexing, categorizing, displaying multiple text entries, importing & exporting data, displaying graphics and matrix have some differences.

4.2 Quantitative Research

This study collected quantitative data from the same institution applied to qualitative research. The institution has provided degree programs to international students over 20 years with the aim of ODA and SDGs. This study selected an institution by considering diversity of alumni across from more than 130 countries and global educational environment. According to Caruana (2014), student diversity provides a rich source of lived experience that can be harnessed as a resource in developing graduates as global citizens. The selected globalized educational institution for this study has started degree programs for higher education inviting international students from 1999 with the cooperation of Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA). From 2010, the institution has operated international scholarship programs in higher education as a form of ODA Scholarship program. Survey items have been developed based on the results of qualitative research. This study conducted a pretest with 23 international graduates from diverse countries. This study conducted online survey for quantitative research. After the pretest was conducted, wordings and structures of questionnaire items modified and used for the main study. For main study, online survey was distributed to alumni from 136 countries. A total of 354 respondents were completed the survey. The response rate was 0.131%. Table 1 summarized demographics of respondents.

Table 1: Summary of Demographics of Respondents

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This study conducted reliability test. Cronbach alphas for variables on job satisfaction showed 0.849 for application, 0.809 for improvement on work, 0.847 for performance assessment, 0.766 for self-confidence, and 0.734 for use of network. Cronbach alphas for variables on global leadership showed 0.878 for leadership, 0.870 for policy analysis, 0.871 for public diplomacy, 0.909 for social responsibility, and 0.887 for global competence. Cronbach alphas for variables on hosting country showed 0.959 for affective, 0.914 for cognitive, and 0.942 for behavior.

5. Data Analysis

5.1. Qualitative Research

The results of cognitive mapping for qualitative data classified 59 concepts into 8 clusters including profession, domestic, global, Korea, equality, community, and policy. A cluster, “policy, ” was stated as educational institution applied in this study offered curriculum that is related to policy. The results provide the list of concepts based on weighted frequency of words in sentences including profession (e.g., development, education, knowledge, work, degree, international, etc.), domestic (e.g., education, government, economic, experience, opportunity, etc.), globalized School (e.g., international, global, study, helps, different, etc.), global (e.g., students, world, countries, different, opportunities, etc.), Korea (e.g., Korean, people, culture, home, friends, etc.), equality (e.g., equity, global, leadership, women, important, etc.), communities (e.g.,communities, involved, etc.), and policy (i.e., public, issues, courses, understanding, studies, improved, decision, knowledge, skills, research, etc.).

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Figure 1: Themes with Frequency

Figure 2 provided sentimental analyses based on auto- coding. The results showed that percentages of major themes for moderately positive and very positive approximately between 70% and 90%.

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Figure 2: Sentimental Analysis based on Auto-coding

5.2. Quantitative Research

5.2.1. Effects of Factors on Job Satisfaction

This study conducted factor analysis to check the validity of the major constructs including application, improvement on work, performance assessment, self- confidence, and use of network. This study used principal component analyses as the extraction method and Varimax rotation methods with Kaiser Normalization. The results of the factor analyses showed that items represent major variables with Eigen values greater than 1.00. Table 2 summarizes the results of the factor analysis.

Table 2: Component Matrix of Variables related to Job Satisfaction

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* AP: Application; IM: Improvement on work; PE: Performance Assessment; SE: Self-confidence; NE: Use of network; JS: Job satisfaction

This study checked correlations of variables. The results show that there are strong relationship between independent variables and dependent variable, while there was no multicollinearity between independent variables.

This study conducted Structural Equational Modeling (SEM) to test hypotheses. For the effects of factors on satisfaction, the overall, the results of the ANOVA found that the model was significant at the 0.01 level with F = 118.74 (r-square = 0.631). As shown in Table 3, hypotheses 2, 3, 4, and 5 were accepted at 0.01 and 0.05 levels.

Table 3: Effects of Application, Improvement on Work, Performance Assessment, Self-Confidence, & Use of Network on Job Satisfaction

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***Significant at 0.01; **Significant at 0.05

5.2.2. Effects of Factors on Globalization

This study conducted another factor analysis for variables including leadership, policy improvement, public diplomacy, and global leader. This study also applied principal component analyses as the extraction method and Varimax rotation methods with Kaiser Normalization. The results of the factor analyses showed that items represent major variables with Eigen values greater than 1.00. Table 4 summarizes the results of the factor analysis.

Table 4: Component Matrix of Variables related to Global Leadership

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* LD: Leadership; PO: Policy analysis; PB: Public diplomacy; SO: Social responsibility; GC: Global competence; GL: Global leadership

For the effects of factors on globalization, the overall, the results of the ANOVA found that the model was significant at the 0.01 level with F = 159.74 (r-square = 0.581). As shown in Table 5, hypotheses 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 were accepted at 0.01 level based on SEM.

Table 5: Effects of Leadership, Policy Improvement, Public Diplomacy, Social Responsibility, and Global Competence on Globalization

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***Significant at 0.01; **Significant at 0.05

5.2.3. Effects of Factors on Attitude of Hosting Country

This study conducted another factor analysis for affective, cognitive, and behavioral variables and attitude on Korea. This study also applied principal component analyses as the extraction method and Varimax rotation methods with Kaiser Normalization. The results of the factor analyses show that items represent major variables, with Eigen values greater than 1.00. Table 6 summarizes the result of factor analysis.

Table 6: Component Matrix Behavioral Variables for Affective, Cognitive, & Behavioral Variables

OTGHCA_2021_v12n2_7_t0006.png 이미지

For the effects of factors on attitude toward the Korea after studied degree program, the overall, the results of the ANOVA found that the model was significant at the 0.01 level with F = 157.1 (r-square = 0.580). As Table 7 showed, hypotheses 11, 12, and 13 were accepted based on SEM.

Table 7: Effects of Affective, Cognitive, & Behavioral Variables on Attitude toward the Hosting Country

OTGHCA_2021_v12n2_7_t0007.png 이미지

***Significant at 0.01; **Significant at 0.05

6. Conclusion

6.1. Findings

The purpose of this study is to investigate effects of international graduates’ higher education in global educational environment for human capital development. This study examined effects of factors including application at work, improvement on work, performance assessment, self-confidence, and use of network on job satisfaction, effects of leadership skills, policy improvement, improved public diplomacy, social responsibility and global competence on globalization. This study also investigates effects of international graduates’ perceived affection, cognition, and behavior on improved attitude toward the hosting country. This study conducted quantitative and qualitative researches using international alumni received degrees from a globalized educational institution that has contributed to educate international students from more than 130 countries as a form of Official Development Assistance (ODA) and human capital development.

The results of cognitive mapping from qualitative research found that 8 clusters including policy, profession, domestic, a globalized school, global, Korea, equality, and community are associated with the school. The results also provide the list of concepts based on weighted frequency of words in sentences such as profession (e.g., development, education, knowledge, work, degree, a globalized school, international, etc.), domestic (e.g., education, government, economic, experience, opportunity, etc.), a globalized school (e.g., international, global, study, helps, different, etc.),. Global (e.g., students, world, countries, different, opportunities, etc.), Korea (e.g., Korean, people, culture, home, friends, etc.), equality (e.g., equity, global, leadership, women, important, etc.), communities (e.g., communities, involved, etc.), policy (i.e., public, issues, courses, understanding, studies, improved, decision, knowledge, skills, research, etc.).

The results of quantitative research found that effects of improvement on work, performance assessment, self- confidence, and use of network showed positively significant on job satisfaction. The effect size was greater with self-confidence on job satisfaction. For further effects, the study found that effects of leadership skills, policy improvement, public diplomacy, social responsibility, and global competence showed positively significant on globalization. Results of this study also found that affective, cognitive, and behavioral components positively and significantly affect attitude toward the hosting country, Korea. Additionally, this study found that more than 59.5% was promoted, while 18.36% was expected to be promoted after studied in globalized educational institution. This study also found that 65.73% had new job opportunities after graduation.

6.2. Managerial and Policy Implications

The results of this study found that academic empowerment in global environment helps improve job satisfaction and globalization. The results implied that increased satisfaction and perceived globalization through global education will foster international relations. The results also implied that higher education in global environment plays key role to enhance attitude toward the hosting country and contributes to build strengthen global networks significantly. Well established alumni associations across countries by improving global network contribute to build globalization and enhance the global image of the hosting country. The results of this study implied that those impact on improved image of hosting country could be also paralleled with globally successful popularity of K-pop and K-culture. Diverse and increasing number of scholarship programs help foster to construct global networks by sharing knowledge through ODA and human capital development. Effectiveness of such results should be more frequently assessed to expand and promote scholarship programs for further accomplishment of global education. Lönnqvist, Laihonen, Cai, and Hasanen, (2018) addressed that international collaboration in the field of higher education is becoming a beneficial way of developing countries to acquire human capital from more developed countries. Kim (1998) also stated that for developing countries, importing advanced knowledge which was created by developed countries opens a new horizon for human capital accumulation. The results of this study also showed that perceived gender equality was increased after studied in globalized educational institution. This results found from both survey and interview results. This results implied that globalized education helps build perception of human rights and fairness. Overall, results of this study confirmed that better policy and management of higher education should be expanded by improving human capital development in globalized environment and by highlighting global citizenship. Effects on hosting country also provided implications how international graduates from various countries help yield global communication and improve public diplomacy.

6.3 Future Research and Limitations

This study has limitations. This study could not collect data from diverse globalized educational institution since there are lack of universities in Korea that taught all classes in English and manage environment globally. Future studies could be considered to collect data from more diverse universities. Future studies could also classify responses based on regions or countries that alumni are originated from.

The author is grateful for the financial support from the KDI School of Public Policy and Management.

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