References
- Venkatesan A, Tunkel AR, Bloch KC, Lauring AS, Sejvar J, Bitnun A, et al. Case definitions, diagnostic algorithms, and priorities in encephalitis: consensus statement of the international encephalitis consortium. Clin Infect Dis 2013;57:1114-28. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cit458
- Varley J, Taylor J, Irani SR. Autoantibody-mediated diseases of the CNS: structure, dysfunction and therapy. Neuropharmacology 2018;132:71-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.04.046
- Quek AM, Britton JW, McKeon A, So E, Lennon VA, Shin C, et al. Autoimmune epilepsy: clinical characteristics and response to immunotherapy. Arch Neurol 2012;69:582-93. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurol.2011.2985
- Toledano M, Britton JW, McKeon A, Shin C, Lennon VA, Quek AM, et al. Utility of an immunotherapy trial in evaluating patients with presumed autoimmune epilepsy. Neurology 2014;82:1578-86. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000383
- Esposito S, Principi N, Calabresi P, Rigante D. An evolving redefinition of autoimmune encephalitis. Autoimmun Rev 2019;18:155-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2018.08.009
- Graus F, Titulaer MJ, Balu R, Benseler S, Bien CG, Cellucci T, et al. A clinical approach to diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis. Lancet Neurol 2016;15:391-404. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00401-9
- Toledano M, Pittock SJ. Autoimmune epilepsy. Semin Neurol 2015;35:245-58. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1552625
- Graus F, Delattre JY, Antoine JC, Dalmau J, Giometto B, Grisold W, et al. Recommended diagnostic criteria for paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75:1135-40. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2003.034447
- Irani SR. 'Moonlighting' surface antigens: a paradigm for autoantibody pathogenicity in neurology? Brain 2016;139(Pt 2):304-6. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awv364
- Dalmau J, Rosenfeld MR. Autoimmune encephalitis update. Neuro Oncol 2014;16:771-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nou030
- Titulaer MJ, McCracken L, Gabilondo I, Armangue T, Glaser C, Iizuka T, et al. Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2013;12:157-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70310-1
- Eker A, Saka E, Dalmau J, Kurne A, Bilen C, Ozen H, et al. Testicular teratoma and anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-associated encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008;79:1082-3. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2008.147611
- Leypoldt F, Wandinger KP. Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Clin Exp Immunol 2014;175:336-48. https://doi.org/10.1111/cei.12185
- Yamakura T, Shimoji K. Subunit- and site-specific pharmacology of the NMDA receptor channel. Prog Neurobiol 1999;59:279-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0082(99)00007-6
- MacDonald JF, Jackson MF, Beazely MA. Hippocampal long-term synaptic plasticity and signal amplification of NMDA receptors. Crit Rev Neurobiol 2006;18:71-84. https://doi.org/10.1615/CritRevNeurobiol.v18.i1-2.80
- Cull-Candy S, Brickley S, Farrant M. NMDA receptor subunits: diversity, development and disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2001;11:327-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00215-4
- Hughes EG, Peng X, Gleichman AJ, Lai M, Zhou L, Tsou R, et al. Cellular and synaptic mechanisms of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. J Neurosci 2010;30:5866-75. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0167-10.2010
- Armangue T, Titulaer MJ, Malaga I, Bataller L, Gabilondo I, Graus F, et al. Pediatric anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis-clinical analysis and novel findings in a series of 20 patients. J Pediatr 2013;162:850-6.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.10.011
- Goldberg EM, Titulaer M, de Blank PM, Sievert A, Ryan N. Anti-Nmethyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated encephalitis in infants and toddlers: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Neurol 2014;50:181-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2013.10.002
- Zhang L, Wu MQ, Hao ZL, Chiang SM, Shuang K, Lin MT, et al. Clinical characteristics, treatments, and outcomes of patients with anti-N-methyld-aspartate receptor encephalitis: A systematic review of reported cases. Epilepsy Behav 2017;68:57-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2016.12.019
- Viaccoz A, Desestret V, Ducray F, Picard G, Cavillon G, Rogemond V, et al. Clinical specificities of adult male patients with NMDA receptor antibodies encephalitis. Neurology 2014;82:556-63. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000126
- Zhang Y, Liu G, Jiang MD, Li LP, Su YY. Analysis of electroencephalogram characteristics of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis patients in China. Clin Neurophysiol 2017;128:1227-33. 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2017.04.015
- Schmitt SE, Pargeon K, Frechette ES, Hirsch LJ, Dalmau J, Friedman D. Extreme delta brush: a unique EEG pattern in adults with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurology 2012;79:1094-100. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182698cd8
- Bacchi S, Franke K, Wewegama D, Needham E, Patel S, Menon D. et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography in anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: A systematic review. J Clin Neurosci 2018;52:54-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2018.03.026
- Pruss H, Dalmau J, Harms L, Holtje M, Ahnert-Hilger G, Borowski K, et al. Retrospective analysis of NMDA receptor antibodies in encephalitis of unknown origin. Neurology 2010;75:1735-9. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a06
- Suppiej A, Nosadini M, Zuliani L, Pelizza MF, Toldo I, Bertossi C, et al. Plasma exchange in pediatric anti-NMDAR encephalitis: a systematic review. Brain Dev 2016;38:613-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2016.01.009
- Fukata Y, Lovero KL, Iwanaga T, Watanabe A, Yokoi N, Tabuchi K, et al. Disruption of LGI1-linked synaptic complex causes abnormal synaptic transmission and epilepsy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010;107:3799-804. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914537107
- Ohkawa T, Fukata Y, Yamasaki M, Miyazaki T, Yokoi N, Takashima H, et al. Autoantibodies to epilepsy-related LGI1 in limbic encephalitis neutralize LGI1-ADAM22 interaction and reduce synaptic AMPA receptors. J Neurosci 2013;33:18161-74. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3506-13.2013
- Petit-Pedrol M, Sell J, Planaguma J, Mannara F, Radosevic M, Haselmann H, et al. LGI1 antibodies alter Kv1.1 and AMPA receptors changing synaptic excitability, plasticity and memory. Brain 2018;141:3144-59.
- Arino H, Armangue T, Petit-Pedrol M, Sabater L, Martinez-Hernandez E, Hara M, et al. Anti-LGI1-associated cognitive impairment: Presentation and long-term outcome. Neurology 2016;87:759-65. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003009
- Irani SR, Michell AW, Lang B, Pettingill P, Waters P, Johnson MR, et al. Faciobrachial dystonic seizures precede Lgi1 antibody limbic encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2011;69:892-900. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.22307
- Thompson J, Bi M, Murchison AG, Makuch M, Bien CG, Chu K, et al. The importance of early immunotherapy in patients with faciobrachial dystonic seizures. Brain 2018;141:348-56. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awx323
- Navarro V, Kas A, Apartis E, Chami L, Rogemond V, Levy P, et al. Motor cortex and hippocampus are the two main cortical targets in LGI1- antibody encephalitis. Brain 2016;139(Pt 4):1079-93. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/aww012
- Irani SR, Alexander S, Waters P, Kleopa KA, Pettingill P, Zuliani L, et al. Antibodies to Kv1 potassium channel-complex proteins leucine-rich, glioma inactivated 1 protein and contactin-associated protein-2 in limbic encephalitis, Morvan's syndrome and acquired neuromyotonia. Brain 2010;133:2734-48. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq213
- Irani SR, Gelfand JM, Bettcher BM, Singhal NS, Geschwind MD. Effect of rituximab in patients with leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated 1 antibodyassociated encephalopathy. JAMA Neurol 2014;71:896-900. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2014.463
- Finke C, Pruss H, Heine J, Reuter S, Kopp UA, Wegner F, et al. Evaluation of cognitive deficits and structural hippocampal damage in encephalitis with leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated 1 antibodies. JAMA Neurol 2017;74:50-9. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.4226
- Lancaster E, Huijbers MG, Bar V, Boronat A, Wong A, Martinez-Hernandez E, et al. Investigations of caspr2, an autoantigen of encephalitis and neuromyotonia. Ann Neurol 2011;69:303-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.22297
- Joubert B, Saint-Martin M, Noraz N, Picard G, Rogemond V, Ducray F, et al. Characterization of a subtype of autoimmune encephalitis with anticontactin-associated protein-like 2 antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid, prominent limbic symptoms, and seizures. JAMA Neurol 2016;73:1115-24. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.1585
- van Sonderen A, Arino H, Petit-Pedrol M, Leypoldt F, Kortvelyessy P, Wandinger KP, et al. The clinical spectrum of Caspr2 antibody-associated disease. Neurology 2016;87:521-8. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002917
- Maat P, de Beukelaar JW, Jansen C, Schuur M, van Duijn CM, van Coevorden MH, et al. Pathologically confirmed autoimmune encephalitis in suspected Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2015;2:e178. https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000178
- Klein CJ, Lennon VA, Aston PA, McKeon A, O'Toole O, Quek A, et al. Insights from LGI1 and CASPR2 potassium channel complex autoantibody subtyping. JAMA Neurol 2013;70:229-34. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.592
- Lilleker JB, Jones MS, Mohanraj R. VGKC complex antibodies in epilepsy: diagnostic yield and therapeutic implications. Seizure 2013;22:776-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2013.06.004
- Pon NC, Houck KM, Muscal E, Idicula SA. Voltage-gated potassium channel antibody autoimmune encephalopathy presenting with isolated psychosis in an adolescent. J Psychiatr Pract 2017;23:441-5. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRA.0000000000000265
- Benarroch EE. GABAB receptors: structure, functions, and clinical implications. Neurology 2012;78:578-84. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318247cd03
- Petit-Pedrol M, Armangue T, Peng X, Bataller L, Cellucci T, Davis R, et al. Encephalitis with refractory seizures, status epilepticus, and antibodies to the GABAA receptor: a case series, characterisation of the antigen, and analysis of the effects of antibodies. Lancet Neurol 2014;13:276-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70299-0
- Spatola M, Petit-Pedrol M, Simabukuro MM, Armangue T, Castro FJ, Barcelo Artigues MI, et al. Investigations in GABAA receptor antibodyassociated encephalitis. Neurology 2017;88:1012-20. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0000000000003713
- Nikolaus M, Knierim E, Meisel C, Kreye J, Pruss H, Schnabel D, et al. Severe GABAA receptor encephalitis without seizures: a paediatric case successfully treated with early immunomodulation. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2018;22:558-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2018.01.002
- Hoftberger R, Titulaer MJ, Sabater L, Dome B, Rozsas A, Hegedus B, et al. Encephalitis and GABAB receptor antibodies: novel findings in a new case series of 20 patients. Neurology 2013;81:1500-6. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a9585f
-
Kruer MC, Hoeftberger R, Lim KY, Coryell JC, Svoboda MD, Woltjer RL, et al. Aggressive course in encephalitis with opsoclonus, ataxia, chorea, and seizures: the first pediatric case of
${\gamma}$ -aminobutyric acid type B receptor autoimmunity. JAMA Neurol 2014;71:620-3. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.4786 - Lai M, Hughes EG, Peng X, Zhou L, Gleichman AJ, Shu H, et al. AMPA receptor antibodies in limbic encephalitis alter synaptic receptor location. Ann Neurol 2009;65:424-34. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.21589
- Hoftberger R, van Sonderen A, Leypoldt F, Houghton D, Geschwind M, Gelfand J, et al. Encephalitis and AMPA receptor antibodies: novel findings in a case series of 22 patients. Neurology 2015;84:2403-12. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000001682
- Zeilhofer HU, Wildner H, Yevenes GE. Fast synaptic inhibition in spinal sensory processing and pain control. Physiol Rev 2012;92:193-235. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00043.2010
- Thomas RH, Chung SK, Wood SE, Cushion TD, Drew CJ, Hammond CL, et al. Genotype-phenotype correlations in hyperekplexia: apnoeas, learning difficulties and speech delay. Brain 2013;136(Pt 10):3085-95. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt207
- Iizuka T, Leite MI, Lang B, Waters P, Urano Y, Miyakawa S, et al. Glycine receptor antibodies are detected in progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus (PERM) but not in saccadic oscillations. J Neurol 2012;259:1566-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-011-6377-2
- Carvajal-Gonzalez A, Leite MI, Waters P, Woodhall M, Coutinho E, Balint B, et al. Glycine receptor antibodies in PERM and related syndromes: characteristics, clinical features and outcomes. Brain 2014;137(Pt 8):2178-92. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awu142
- Kanaani J, Cianciaruso C, Phelps EA, Pasquier M, Brioudes E, Billestrup N, et al. Compartmentalization of GABA synthesis by GAD67 differs between pancreatic beta cells and neurons. PLoS One 2015;10:e0117130. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117130
- Tuzun E, Dalmau J. Limbic encephalitis and variants: classification, diagnosis and treatment. Neurologist 2007;13:261-71. https://doi.org/10.1097/nrl.0b013e31813e34a5
- Malter MP, Helmstaedter C, Urbach H, Vincent A, Bien CG. Antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase define a form of limbic encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2010;67:470-8. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.21917
- Ben Achour N, Ben Younes T, Rebai I, Ben Ahmed M, Kraoua I, Ben Youssef-Turki I. Severe dysautonomia as a main feature of anti-GAD encephalitis: report of a paediatric case and literature review. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2018;22:548-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2018.01.004
- Vincent A, Bien CG, Irani SR, Waters P. Autoantibodies associated with diseases of the CNS: new developments and future challenges. Lancet Neurol 2011;10:759-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70096-5
- Lawn ND, Westmoreland BF, Kiely MJ, Lennon VA, Vernino S. Clinical, magnetic resonance imaging, and electroencephalographic findings in paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis. Mayo Clin Proc 2003;78:1363-8. https://doi.org/10.4065/78.11.1363
- Perucca P, Dubeau F, Gotman J. Intracranial electroencephalographic seizure-onset patterns: effect of underlying pathology. Brain 2014;137(Pt 1):183-96. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt299
- Hacohen Y, Wright S, Waters P, Agrawal S, Carr L, Cross H, et al. Paediatric autoimmune encephalopathies: clinical features, laboratory investigations and outcomes in patients with or without antibodies to known central nervous system autoantigens. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2013;84:748-55. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2012-303807
- Escudero D, Guasp M, Arino H, Gaig C, Martinez-Hernandez E, Dalmau J, et al. Antibody-associated CNS syndromes without signs of inflammation in the elderly. Neurology 2017;89:1471-5. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0000000000004541
- Darnell RB, Posner JB. A new cause of limbic encephalopathy. Brain 2005;128(Pt 8):1745-6. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh592
- Bascic-Kes V, Kes P, Zavoreo I, Lisak M, Zadro L, Coric L, et al. Guidelines for the use of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of neurologic diseases. Acta Clin Croat 2012;51:673-83.
- Dogan Onugoren M, Golombeck KS, Bien C, Abu-Tair M, Brand M, Bulla-Hellwig M, et al. Immunoadsorption therapy in autoimmune encephalitides. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2016;3:e207. https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000207
- Platt MP, Agalliu D, Cutforth T. Hello from the other side: how autoantibodies circumvent the blood-brain barrier in autoimmune encephalitis. Front Immunol 2017;8:442. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.00442
Cited by
- Commentary on "Autoimmune encephalitis and epilepsy: evolving definition and clinical spectrum" vol.63, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3345/cep.2020.00353
- Characteristics and Prognosis of Autoimmune Encephalitis in the East of China: A Multi-Center Study vol.12, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.642078
- Anti-Alpha-Amino-3-Hydroxy-5-Methyl-4-Isoxazolepropionic Acid Receptor Encephalitis: A Review vol.12, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.652820
- Association between autoimmune encephalitis and epilepsy: Systematic review and meta-analysis vol.91, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2021.07.005