Journal of the Korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (대한소아청소년정신의학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Development of the Korean Practice Parameter for Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

  • Bahn, Geon Ho (Department of Psychiatry, Kyung Hee University School of Medicine) ;
  • Lee, Young Sik (Department of Psychiatry, Chung-Ang University Hospital, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine) ;
  • Yoo, Hanik K. (Seoul Brain Research Institute) ;
  • Kim, Eui-Jung (Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University) ;
  • Park, Subin (Department of Research Planning, Mental Health Research Institute, National Center for Mental Health) ;
  • Han, Doug Hyun (Department of Psychiatry, Chung-Ang University Hospital, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine) ;
  • Hong, Minha (Department of Psychiatry, Myongji Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine) ;
  • Kim, Bongseog (Department of Psychiatry, Inje University College of Medicine) ;
  • Lee, Soyoung Irene (Department of Psychiatry, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine) ;
  • Bhang, Soo Young (Department of Psychiatry, Eulji University School of Medicine) ;
  • Lee, Seung Yup (Department of Psychiatry, Kyung Hee University School of Medicine) ;
  • Hong, Jin Pyo (0Department of Psychiatry, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine) ;
  • Joung, Yoo-Sook (0Department of Psychiatry, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine)
  • Received : 2019.08.26
  • Accepted : 2019.09.19
  • Published : 2020.01.01
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Objectives: Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is an important mental health problem that needs resolution, especially considering the high rates of ADHD continuation from childhood to adolescence/adulthood and the high prevalence of ADHD in adults. Adults with ADHD have lifelong negative impacts and require close monitoring with long-term follow-up. Hence, the establishment of a Korean practice parameter for adult ADHD is necessary to minimize discontinuation of treatment and enable information sharing among Korean mental health professionals. Methods: The Korean practice parameter was developed using an evidence-based approach consisting of expert consensus survey coupled with literature review. Results: According to the expert consensus survey, the most commonly used diagnostic methods were clinical psychiatric interview (20.66%) and self-report scales (19.25%) followed by attention (14.71%) and psychological tests (14.24%). Key evaluation instruments currently available in Korea are the World Health Organization Adult ADHD Self-Report Rating Scale, Korean Adult ADHD Rating Scale, Diagnostic Interview for ADHD in Adults, Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale for adults, Comprehensive Attention Test, Conners' Continuous Performance Test, and the subtests of Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Digit Span and Letter-Number Sequencing. Although pharmacotherapy is recommended as the first-line of treatment for adult ADHD, we recommend that it be followed by a multimodal and multidisciplinary approach including psychoeducation, pharmacotherapy, cognitive behavior therapy and coaching. Conclusion: The Korean practice parameter introduces not only general information for the diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD on a global scale, but also the process of diagnosis and treatment options tailored to the Korean population.

Keywords

References

  1. Hong M, Lee S, Lee YS, Kim B, Joung YS, Yoo HK, et al. Comparison of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder practice in adults according to a training background in child psychiatry. J Korean Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2019;30:121-126. https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.190020
  2. Kim JH, Lee EH, Joung YS. The WHO Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale: reliability and validity of the Korean version. Psychiatry Investig 2013;10:41-46. https://doi.org/10.4306/pi.2013.10.1.41
  3. Kim MS. 9 out 10 adult ADHD patients suffer from other mental diseases such as depression: announcement of 100 psychiatrists' survey, Korean Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2nd ADHD Day Press Meeting: results of survey on adult ADHD disease awareness and treatment 2017. Yonhap News (Seoul). 2017 Mar 28 [cited 2019 July 15]. Available from URL: https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20170328139200017.
  4. Kang T, Kim J, Bahn GH, Song SH, Kim J, Kim J, et al. Development of Korean Adult ADHD Rating Scale. J Korean Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2015;26:295-310. https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.2015.26.4.295
  5. DIVA Foundation. DIVA-5 [cited 2019 July 1]. Available from URL: http://www.divacenter.eu/DIVA.aspx?id=523.
  6. Lee S, Choi J, Kim K, Kim JW, Kim S, Kang T, et al. The guideline of diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: developed by ADHD Translational Research Center. J Korean Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2016;27:236-266. https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.2016.27.4.236
  7. Barkley RA. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a handbook for diagnosis and treatment. 3rd ed. New York: The Guilford Press;2006. p.219-247.
  8. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Mick E, Spencer T, Wilens T, Kiely K, et al. High risk for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children of parents with childhood onset of the disorder: a pilot study. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:431-435. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.3.431
  9. Biederman J, Faraone S, Milberger S, Curtis S, Chen L, Marrs A, et al. Predictors of persistence and remission of ADHD into adolescence: results from a four-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:343-351. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199603000-00016
  10. Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV. Age-dependent decline of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: impact of remission definition and symptom type. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:816-818. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.5.816
  11. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Feighner JA, Monuteaux MC. Assessing symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults: which is more valid? J Consult Clin Psychol 2000;68:830-842. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.830
  12. Faraone SV, Mick E. Molecular genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2010;33:159-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2009.12.004
  13. Boomsma DI, Saviouk V, Hottenga JJ, Distel MA, de Moor MH, Vink JM, et al. Genetic epidemiology of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD index) in adults. PLoS One 2010;5:e10621. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010621
  14. Kan KJ, Dolan CV, Nivard MG, Middeldorp CM, van Beijsterveldt CE, Willemsen G, et al. Genetic and environmental stability in attention problems across the lifespan: evidence from the Netherlands twin register. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2013;52:12-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.10.009
  15. Larsson H, Asherson P, Chang Z, Ljung T, Friedrichs B, Larsson JO, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: a large Swedish population-based study of twins. Psychol Med 2013;43:197-207. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712001067
  16. Brikell I, Kuja-Halkola R, Larsson H. Heritability of attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2015;168:406-413. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.32335
  17. Zhou K, Dempfle A, Arcos-Burgos M, Bakker SC, Banaschewski T, Biederman J, et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide linkage scans of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008;147B:1392-1398. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.30878
  18. Zhu M, Zhao S. Candidate gene identification approach: progress and challenges. Int J Biol Sci 2007;3:420-427.
  19. Grevet EH, Marques FZ, Salgado CA, Fischer AG, Kalil KL, Victor MM, et al. Serotonin transporter gene polymorphism and the phenotypic heterogeneity of adult ADHD. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2007;114:1631-1636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-007-0797-2
  20. Lasky-Su J, Lange C, Biederman J, Tsuang M, Doyle AE, Smoller JW, et al. Family-based association analysis of a statistically derived quantitative traits for ADHD reveal an association in DRD4 with inattentive symptoms in ADHD individuals. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008;147B:100-106. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.30567
  21. Lasky-Su J, Neale BM, Franke B, Anney RJ, Zhou K, Maller JB, et al. Genome-wide association scan of quantitative traits for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identifies novel associations and confirms candidate gene associations. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008;147B:1345-1354. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.30867
  22. Lasky-Su J, Anney RJ, Neale BM, Franke B, Zhou K, Maller JB, et al. Genome-wide association scan of the time to onset of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008;147B:1355-1358. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.30869
  23. Hong JH, Hwang IW, Lim MH, Kwon HJ, Jin HJ. Genetic associations between ADHD and dopaminergic genes (DAT1 and DRD4) VNTRs in Korean children. Genes Genomics 2018;40:1309-1317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13258-018-0726-9
  24. Kim BN, Kang D, Cho SC, Park TW, Lim MH, Chung YC, et al. Shorter dinucleotide repeat length in the DRD5 gene is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Genet 2009;19:57. https://doi.org/10.1097/YPG.0b013e328320803c
  25. Hawi Z, Cummins TD, Tong J, Johnson B, Lau R, Samarrai W, et al. The molecular genetic architecture of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2015;20:289-297. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2014.183
  26. Franke B, Neale BM, Faraone SV. Genome-wide association studies in ADHD. Hum Genet 2009;126:13-50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-009-0663-4
  27. Arcos-Burgos M, Jain M, Acosta MT, Shively S, Stanescu H, Wallis D, et al. A common variant of the latrophilin 3 gene, LPHN3, confers susceptibility to ADHD and predicts effectiveness of stimulant medication. Mol Psychiatry 2010;15:1053-1066. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2010.6
  28. Reif A, Nguyen TT, Weissflog L, Jacob CP, Romanos M, Renner TJ, et al. DIRAS2 is associated with adult ADHD, related traits, and co-morbid disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;36:2318-2327. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2011.120
  29. Lesch KP, Merker S, Reif A, Novak M. Dances with black widow spiders: dysregulation of glutamate signalling enters centre stage in ADHD. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2013;23:479-491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.07.013
  30. Salatino-Oliveira A, Genro JP, Polanczyk G, Zeni C, Schmitz M, Kieling C, et al. Cadherin-13 gene is associated with hyperactive/impulsive symptoms in attention/deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2015;168B:162-169.
  31. Lesch KP, Selch S, Renner TJ, Jacob C, Nguyen TT, Hahn T, et al. Genome-wide copy number variation analysis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: association with neuropeptide Y gene dosage in an extended pedigree. Mol Psychiatry 2011;16:491-503. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2010.29
  32. Ramos-Quiroga JA, Nasillo V, Fernandez-Aranda F, Casas M. Addressing the lack of studies in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults. Expert Rev Neurother 2014;14:553-567. https://doi.org/10.1586/14737175.2014.908708
  33. Ramos-Quiroga JA, Sanchez-Mora C, Casas M, Garcia-Martinez I, Bosch R, Nogueira M, et al. Genome-wide copy number variation analysis in adult attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder. J Psychiatr Res 2014;49:60-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.10.022
  34. dela Pena I, Kim HJ, Sohn A, Kim BN, Han DH, Ryu JH, et al. Prefrontal cortical and striatal transcriptional responses to the reinforcing effect of repeated methylphenidate treatment in the spontaneously hypertensive rat, animal model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Behav Brain Funct 2014;10:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-10-17
  35. Barkley RA. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a handbook for diagnosis and treatment. 3rd ed. New York: Guilford Press;2006. p.704-736.
  36. Bush G, Valera EM, Seidman LJ. Functional neuroimaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and suggested future directions. Biol Psychiatry 2005;57:1273-1284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.034
  37. Castellanos FX, Margulies DS, Kelly C, Uddin LQ, Ghaffari M, Kirsch A, et al. Cingulate-precuneus interactions: a new locus of dysfunction in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2008;63:332-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.06.025
  38. Ehlis AC, Bahne CG, Jacob CP, Herrmann MJ, Fallgatter AJ. Reduced lateral prefrontal activation in adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) during a working memory task: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) study. J Psychiatr Res 2008;42:1060-1067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.11.011
  39. Arnsten AF, Pliszka SR. Catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical function: relevance to treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and related disorders. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011;99:211-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2011.01.020
  40. Kesner RP, Churchwell JC. An analysis of rat prefrontal cortex in mediating executive function. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2011;96:417-431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2011.07.002
  41. Shaw P, Eckstrand K, Sharp W, Blumenthal J, Lerch JP, Greenstein D, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007;104:19649-19654. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707741104
  42. Hoogman M, Muetzel R, Guimaraes JP, Shumskaya E, Mennes M, Zwiers MP, et al. Brain i maging of t he cortex i n A DHD: a coordinated analysis of large-scale clinical and population-based samples. Am J Psychiatry 2019;176:531-542. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.18091033
  43. Zametkin AJ, Nordahl TE, Gross M, King AC, Semple WE, Rumsey J, et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with hyperactivity of childhood onset. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1361-1366. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199011153232001
  44. Spencer TJ, Biederman J, Madras BK, Dougherty DD, Bonab AA, Livni E, et al. Further evidence of dopamine transporter dysregulation in ADHD: a controlled PET imaging study using altropane. Biol Psychiatry 2007;62:1059-1061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.12.008
  45. Thapar A, Cooper M, Eyre O, Langley K. What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2013;54:3-16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02611.x
  46. Hong SB, Im MH, Kim JW, Park EJ, Shin MS, Kim BN, et al. Environmental lead exposure and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom domains in a community sample of South Korean school-age children. Environ Health Perspect 2015;123:271-276. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307420
  47. Kim JI, Kim JW, Lee JM, Yun HJ, Sohn CH, Shin MS, et al. Interaction between DRD2 and lead exposure on the cortical thickness of the frontal lobe in youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018;82:169-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.11.018
  48. Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, Ruiz P. Kaplan and Sadock's synopsis of psychiatry: behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry. 11th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer;2014.
  49. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder: DSM-IV. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press Inc.;1994.
  50. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing;2013
  51. Weyandt L, DuPaul G. College students with ADHD: current issues and future directions. New York, NY: Springer;2013.
  52. Franke B, Michelini G, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Bilbow A, Buitelaar JK, et al. Live fast, die young? A review on the developmental trajectories of ADHD across the lifespan. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2018;28:1059-1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.08.001
  53. Adler L, Cohen J. Diagnosis and evaluation of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2004;27:187-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2003.12.003
  54. Philipp-Wiegmann F, Retz-Junginger P, Retz W, Rosler M. The intraindividual impact of ADHD on the transition of adulthood to old age. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2016;266:367-371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-015-0644-7
  55. Kooij JJ, Michielsen M, Kruithof H, Bijlenga D. ADHD in old age: a review of the literature and proposal for assessment and treatment. Expert Rev Neurother 2016;16:1371-1381. https://doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2016.1204914
  56. Dalsgaard S, Ostergaard SD, Leckman JF, Mortensen PB, Pedersen MG. Mortality in children, adolescents, and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a nationwide cohort study. Lancet 2015;385:2190-2196. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61684-6
  57. London AS, Landes SD. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and adult mortality. Prev Med 2016;90:8-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.06.021
  58. Guldberg-Kjar T, Johansson B. Old people reporting childhood AD/HD symptoms: retrospectively self-rated AD/HD symptoms in a population-based Swedish sample aged 65-80. Nord J Psychiatry 2009;63:375-382. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039480902818238
  59. Giupponi G, Giordano G, Maniscalco I, Erbuto D, Berardelli I, Conca A, et al. Suicide risk in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Danub 2018;30:2-10. https://doi.org/10.24869/psyd.2018.2
  60. Stickley A, Tachimori H, Inoue Y, Shinkai T, Yoshimura R, Nakamura J, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and suicidal behavior in adult psychiatric outpatients. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2018;72:713-722. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12685
  61. Polanczyk G, Rohde LA. Epidemiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2007;20:386-392. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e3281568d7a
  62. Fayyad J, Sampson NA, Hwang I, Adamowski T, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Al-Hamzawi A, et al. The descriptive epidemiology of DSMIV Adult ADHD in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord 2017;9:47-65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-016-0208-3
  63. Hwangbo R, Chang H, Hong M, Cho S, Bahn GH. The diagnostic distribution of psychiatric disorders among the population under 19 years old: based on the National Insurance Data. J Korean Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2016;27:139-145. https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.2016.27.2.139
  64. Moffitt TE, Houts R, Asherson P, Belsky DW, Corcoran DL, Hammerle M, et al. Is adult ADHD a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder? Evidence from a four-decade longitudinal cohort study. Am J Psychiatry 2015;172:967-977. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14101266
  65. Agnew-Blais JC, Polanczyk GV, Danese A, Wertz J, Moffitt TE, Arseneault L. Evaluation of the persistence, remission, and emergence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in young adulthood. JAMA Psychiatry 2016;73:713-720. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0465
  66. Cooper M, Hammerton G, Collishaw S, Langley K, Thapar A, Dalsgaard S, et al. Investigating late-onset ADHD: a population cohort investigation. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2018;59:1105-1113. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12911
  67. Ramos-Olazagasti MA, Castellanos FX, Mannuzza S, Klein RG. Predicting the adult functional outcomes of boys with ADHD 33 years later. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2018;57:571-582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.04.015
  68. Noh GM, Lee SM, Bahn GH. Social function of adult men with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the context of military service. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2018;14:3349-3354. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S180806
  69. Teive HA, Zavala JA, Munhoz RP, Lara DR, Lima P, Palmini A. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and the behavior of "Che" Guevara. J Clin Neurosci 2009;16:1136-1138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2008.12.003
  70. Fitzgerald M. Adult deficit hyperactivity disorder and other diagnosis. Ir J Psychol Med 2008;25:160. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0790966700011356
  71. Simon V, Czobor P, Balint S, Meszaros A, Bitter I. Prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2009;194:204-211. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.048827
  72. Caye A, Swanson J, Thapar A, Sibley M, Arseneault L, Hechtman L, et al. Life span studies of ADHD-conceptual challenges and predictors of persistence and outcome. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2016;18:111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0750-x
  73. Sibley MH, Mitchell JT, Becker SP. Method of adult diagnosis influences estimated persistence of childhood ADHD: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. Lancet Psychiatry 2016;3:1157-1165. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30190-0
  74. Sibley MH, Swanson JM, Arnold LE, Hechtman LT, Owens EB, Stehli A, et al. Defining ADHD symptom persistence in adulthood: optimizing sensitivity and specificity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2017;58:655-662. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12620
  75. Ramos-Quiroga JA, Montoya A, Kutzelnigg A, Deberdt W, Sobanski E. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the European adult population: prevalence, disease awareness, and treatment guidelines. Curr Med Res Opin 2013;29:1093-1104. https://doi.org/10.1185/03007995.2013.812961
  76. Zalsman G, Shilton T. Adult ADHD: A new disease? Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract 2016;20:70-76. https://doi.org/10.3109/13651501.2016.1149197
  77. Rigler T, Manor I, Kalansky A, Shorer Z, Noyman I, Sadaka Y. New DSM-5 criteria for ADHD - does it matter? Compr Psychiatry 2016;68:56-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.03.008
  78. Barkley RA, Brown TE. Unrecognized attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults presenting with other psychiatric disorders. CNS Spectr 2008;13:977-984. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1092852900014036
  79. Matte B, Anselmi L, Salum GA, Kieling C, Goncalves H, Menezes A, et al. ADHD in DSM-5: a field trial in a large, representative sample of 18- to 19-year-old adults. Psychol Med 2015;45:361-373. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714001470
  80. Park S, Cho MJ, Chang SM, Jeon HJ, Cho SJ, Kim BS, et al. Prevalence, correlates, and comorbidities of adult ADHD symptoms in Korea: results of the Korean epidemiologic catchment area study. Psychiatry Res 2011;186:378-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.047
  81. Kwak YS, Jung YE, Kim MD. Prevalence and correlates of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in Korean college students. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2015;11:797-802. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S80785
  82. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Mick E. The age-dependent decline of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis of follow-up studies. Psychol Med 2006;36:159-165. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329170500471X
  83. Kooij SJ, Bejerot S, Blackwell A, Caci H, Casas-Brugue M, Carpentier PJ, et al. European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry 2010;10:67. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-10-67
  84. Pingault JB, Viding E, Galera C, Greven CU, Zheng Y, Plomin R, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on the developmental course of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms from childhood to adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry 2015;72:651-658. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0469
  85. Biederman J. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a selective overview. Biol Psychiatry 2005;57:1215-1220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.10.020
  86. Genolini C, Pingault JB, Driss T, Cote S, Tremblay RE, Vitaro F, et al. KmL3D: a non-parametric algorithm for clustering joint trajectories. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 2013;109:104-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmpb.2012.08.016
  87. Willcutt EG, Nigg JT, Pennington BF, Solanto MV, Rohde LA, Tannock R, et al. Validity of DSM-IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes. J Abnorm Psychol 2012;121:991-1010. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027347
  88. Willoughby MT. Developmental course of ADHD symptomatology during the transition from childhood to adolescence: a review with recommendations. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2003;44:88-106. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.t01-1-00104
  89. Larsson H, Dilshad R, Lichtenstein P, Barker ED. Developmental trajectories of DSM-IV symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: genetic effects, family risk and associated psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2011;52:954-963. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02379.x
  90. Pingault JB, Cote SM, Vitaro F, Falissard B, Genolini C, Tremblay RE. The developmental course of childhood inattention symptoms uniquely predicts educational attainment: a 16-year longitudinal study. Psychiatry Res 2014;219:707-709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.06.022
  91. Pingault JB, Tremblay RE, Vitaro F, Carbonneau R, Genolini C, Falissard B, et al. Childhood trajectories of inattention and hyperactivity and prediction of educational attainment in early adulthood: a 16-year longitudinal population-based study. Am J Psychiatry 2011;168:1164-1170. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10121732
  92. Retz W, Stieglitz RD, Corbisiero S, Retz-Junginger P, Rosler M. Emotional dysregulation in adult ADHD: What is the empirical evidence? Expert Rev Neurother 2012;12:1241-1251. https://doi.org/10.1586/ern.12.109
  93. Surman CB, Biederman J, Spencer T, Yorks D, Miller CA, Petty CR, et al. Deficient emotional self-regulation and adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a family risk analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2011;168:617-623. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10081172
  94. Amador-Campos JA, Gomez-Benito J, Ramos-Quiroga JA. The conners' adult ADHD rating scales--short self-report and observer forms: psychometric properties of the Catalan version. J Atten Disord 2014;18:671-679. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054712446831
  95. Christiansen H, Kis B, Hirsch O, Philipsen A, Henneck M, Panczuk A, et al. German validation of the Conners Adult ADHD Rating Scales-self-report (CAARS-S) I: factor structure and normative data. Eur Psychiatry 2011;26:100-107.
  96. Kessler RC, Green JG, Adler LA, Barkley RA, Chatterji S, Faraone SV, et al. Structure and diagnosis of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: analysis of expanded symptom criteria from the Adult ADHD Clinical Diagnostic Scale. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010;67:1168-1178. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.146
  97. Marchant BK, Reimherr FW, Robison D, Robison RJ, Wender PH. Psychometric properties of the Wender-Reimherr Adult Attention Deficit Disorder Scale. Psychol Assess 2013;25:942-950. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032797
  98. Sagvolden T, Johansen EB, Aase H, Russell VA. A dynamic developmental theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes. Behav Brain Sci 2005;28:397-419. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05000075
  99. Sandberg S. The biopsychosocial context of ADHD. Behav Brain Sci 2005;28:441-442. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05370075
  100. Turgay A, Goodman DW, Asherson P, Lasser RA, Babcock TF, Pucci ML, et al. Lifespan persistence of ADHD: the life transition model and its application. J Clin Psychiatry 2012;73:192-201. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.10m06628
  101. Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K. Young adult outcome of hyperactive children: adaptive functioning in major life activities. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006;45:192-202. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000189134.97436.e2
  102. DuPaul GJ, Weyandt LL, O'Dell SM, Varejao M. College students with ADHD: current status and future directions. J Atten Disord 2009;13:234-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054709340650
  103. Frazier TW, Youngstrom EA, Glutting JJ, Watkins MW. ADHD and achievement: meta-analysis of the child, adolescent, and adult literatures and a concomitant study with college students. J Learn Disabil 2007;40:49-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194070400010401
  104. Norwalk K, Norvilitis JM, MacLean MG. ADHD symptomatology and its relationship to factors associated with college adjustment. J Atten Disord 2009;13:251-258. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054708320441
  105. Gray SA, Fettes P, Woltering S, Mawjee K, Tannock R. Symptom manifestation and impairments in college students with ADHD. J Learn Disabil 2016;49:616-630. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219415576523
  106. Harpin VA. The effect of ADHD on the life of an individual, their family, and community from preschool to adult life. Arch Dis Child 2005;90 Suppl 1:i2-7. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2004.059006
  107. Gjervan B, Torgersen T, Nordahl HM, Rasmussen K. Functional impairment and occupational outcome in adults with ADHD. J Atten Disord 2012;16:544-552. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054711413074
  108. Halmoy A, Fasmer OB, Gillberg C, Haavik J. Occupational outcome in adult ADHD: impact of symptom profile, comorbid psychiatric problems, and treatment: a cross-sectional study of 414 clinically diagnosed adult ADHD patients. J Atten Disord 2009;13:175-187. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054708329777
  109. de Graaf R, Kessler RC, Fayyad J, ten Have M, Alonso J, Angermeyer M, et al. The prevalence and effects of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on the performance of workers: results from the WHO World Mental Health Survey Initiative. Occup Environ Med 2008;65:835-842. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2007.038448
  110. Brook JS, Brook DW, Zhang C, Seltzer N, Finch SJ. Adolescent ADHD and adult physical and mental health, work performance, and financial stress. Pediatrics 2013;131:5-13. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-1725
  111. Breslin FC, Pole JD. Work injury risk among young people with learning disabilities and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Canada. Am J Public Health 2009;99:1423-1430. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.140855
  112. Hodgkins P, Montejano L, Sasane R, Huse D. Risk of injury associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults enrolled in employer-sponsored health plans: a retrospective analysis. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord 2011;13:PCC.10m01031. https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.10m01028
  113. Kupper T, Haavik J, Drexler H, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Wermelskirchen D, Prutz C, et al. The negative impact of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder on occupational health in adults and adolescents. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2012;85:837-847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-012-0794-0
  114. Fruchter E, Marom-Harel H, Fenchel D, Kapra O, Ginat K, Portuguese S, et al. Functioning of young adults with ADHD in the military. J Atten Disord 2019;23:1470-1474. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716652478
  115. Lee DY, Lee CS, Park CS, Kim BJ, Cha BS, Lee SJ, et al. Effect of symptoms of adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder on symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder in Korean conscripts. Psychiatry Investig 2012;9:154-160. https://doi.org/10.4306/pi.2012.9.2.154
  116. Robin AL, Payson E. The impact of ADHD on marriage. ADHD Rep 2002;10:9-14. https://doi.org/10.1521/adhd.10.3.9.20553
  117. Shaw P, Stringaris A, Nigg J, Leibenluft E. Emotion dysregulation in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2014;171:276-293. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13070966
  118. Barkley RA, Murphy KR. Deficient emotional self-regulation in adults with ADHD: the relative contributions of emotional impulsiveness and ADHD symptoms to adaptive impairments in major life activities. J ADHD Relat Disord 2010;1:5-28.
  119. Skirrow C, Asherson P. Emotional lability, comorbidity and impairment in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Affect Disord 2013;147:80-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.10.011
  120. Surman CB, Biederman J, Spencer T, Miller CA, McDermott KM, Faraone SV. Understanding deficient emotional self-regulation in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a controlled study. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord 2013;5:273-281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-012-0100-8
  121. Morstedt B, Corbisiero S, Bitto H, Stieglitz RD. Emotional symptoms and their contribution to functional impairment in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord 2016;8:21-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-015-0181-2
  122. Minde K, Eakin L, Hechtman L, Ochs E, Bouffard R, Greenfield B, et al. The psychosocial functioning of children and spouses of adults with ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2003;44:637-646. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00150
  123. Rhee SH, Waldman ID, Hay DA, Levy F. Sex differences in genetic and environmental influences on DSM-III-R attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 1999;108:24-41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.108.1.24
  124. Canu WH, Carlson CL. Rejection sensitivity and social outcomes of young adult men with ADHD. J Atten Disord 2007;10:261-275. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054706288106
  125. Eakin L, Minde K, Hechtman L, Ochs E, Krane E, Bouffard R, et al. The marital and family functioning of adults with ADHD and their spouses. J Atten Disord 2004;8:1-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/108705470400800101
  126. Barkley RA, Cox D. A review of driving risks and impairments associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the effects of stimulant medication on driving performance. J Safety Res 2007;38:113-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2006.09.004
  127. Rosenbloom T, Wultz B. Thirty-day self-reported risky driving behaviors of ADHD and non-ADHD drivers. Accid Anal Prev 2011;43:128-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.002
  128. Swensen A, Birnbaum HG, Ben Hamadi R, Greenberg P, Cremieux PY, Secnik K. Incidence and costs of accidents among attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder patients. J Adolesc Health 2004;35:346.e1-346.e9 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(04)00055-2
  129. Flory K, Molina BS, Pelham WE Jr, Gnagy E, Smith B. Childhood ADHD predicts risky sexual behavior in young adulthood. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2006;35:571-577. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3504_8
  130. Gudjonsson GH, Sigurdsson JF, Sigfusdottir ID, Young S. An epidemiological study of ADHD symptoms among young persons and the relationship with cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption and illicit drug use. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2012;53:304-312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02489.x
  131. Caye A, Rocha TB, Anselmi L, Murray J, Menezes AM, Barros FC, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder trajectories from childhood to young adulthood: evidence from a birth cohort supporting a late-onset syndrome. JAMA Psychiatry 2016;73:705-712. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0383
  132. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Moulton JL 3rd. Lifetime criminality among boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a prospective follow-up study into adulthood using official arrest records. Psychiatry Res 2008;160:237-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2007.11.003
  133. Knecht C, de Alvaro R, Martinez-Raga J, Balanza-Martinez V. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), substance use disorders, and criminality: a difficult problem with complex solutions. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2015;27:163-175. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2015-5007
  134. Cahill BS, Coolidge FL, Segal DL, Klebe KJ, Marle PD, Overmann KA. Prevalence of ADHD and its subtypes in male and female adult prison inmates. Behav Sci Law 2012;30:154-166. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2004
  135. Galland D, Tisserant I, Notardonato L. ["Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in forensic psychiatry: a review"]. Encephale 2017;43:268-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2016.04.012
  136. Wasserstein J. Diagnostic issues for adolescents and adults with ADHD. J Clin Psychol 2005;61:535-547. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20118
  137. Murphy P, Schachar R. Use of self-ratings in the assessment of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:1156-1159. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.7.1156
  138. Zucker M, Morris MK, Ingram SM, Morris RD, Bakeman R. Concordance of self- and informant ratings of adults' current and childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. Psychol Assess 2002;14:379-389. https://doi.org/10.1037//1040-3590.14.4.379
  139. Brown TE. Attention-deficit disorders and comorbidities in children, adolescents, and adults. Washington, NY: American Psyciatric Press, Inc.;2000.
  140. Canela C, Buadze A, Dube A, Eich D, Liebrenz M. Skills and compensation strategies in adult ADHD - A qualitative study. PLoS One 2017;12:e0184964. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184964
  141. Adler LA. Clinical presentations of adult patients with ADHD. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65 Suppl 3:8-11. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v65n0102
  142. Mao AR, Findling RL. Comorbidities in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a practical guide to diagnosis in primary care. Postgrad Med 2014;126:42-51.
  143. Conners CK, Jett JL. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: The latest assessment and treatment strategies. Kansas City, MO: Compact Clinicals;1999.
  144. Francks C, Fisher SE, Marlow AJ, MacPhie IL, Taylor KE, Richardson AJ, et al. Familial and genetic effects on motor coordination, laterality, and reading-related cognition. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1970-1977. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.11.1970
  145. Ronald A, Simonoff E, Kuntsi J, Asherson P, Plomin R. Evidence for overlapping genetic influences on autistic and ADHD behaviours in a community twin sample. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2008;49:535-542. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01857.x
  146. Willcutt EG, Pennington BF, Olson RK, DeFries JC. Understanding comorbidity: a twin study of reading disability and attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2007;144B:709-714. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.30310
  147. Kessler RC, Adler L, Ames M, Demler O, Faraone S, Hiripi E, et al. The World Health Organization Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS): a short screening scale for use in the general population. Psychol Med 2005;35:245-256. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291704002892
  148. Heo S, Kim JH, Joung YS, Lee WI, Kim JJ, Sohn SH, et al. Clinical utility of the Korean version of the WHO Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale Screener. Psychiatry Investig 2018;15:325-329. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2017.07.10
  149. Ustun B, Adler LA, Rudin C, Faraone SV, Spencer TJ, Berglund P, et al. The World Health Organization Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Screening Scale for DSM-5. JAMA Psychiatry 2017;74:520-527. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0298
  150. Conners CK, Erhardt D, Sparrow EP. Conners' adult ADHD rating scales (CAARS): technical manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems Inc.;1999.
  151. Rossini ED, O'Connor MA. Retrospective self-reported symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: reliability of the Wender Utah Rating Scale. Psychol Rep 1995;77(3 Pt 1):751-754. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1995.77.3.751
  152. Goldstein S, Naglieri JA. Brown Attention-Deficit-Disorder Scales for adolescents and adults. In: Encyclopedia of child behavior and development. Boston, MA: Springer;2011. p.303-303.
  153. Barkley RA, Murphy KR. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a clinical workbook. 3rd ed. New York, NY: The Guilford Press;2006.
  154. Young S. The YAQ-S and YAQ-I: the development of self and informant questionnaires reporting on current adult ADHD symptomatology, comorbid and associated problems. Pers Individ Dif 2004;36:1211-1223 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00212-5
  155. Hong M, Lee YS, Kim B, Joung YS, Yoo HK, Kim E, et al. Clinical utility and cut-off scores of the Korean Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale. J Korean Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2019;30:116-120. https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.190022
  156. Barkley RA, Murphy KR. The nature of executive function (EF) deficits in daily life activities in adults with ADHD and their relationship to performance on EF tests. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 2011;33:137-158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-011-9217-x
  157. Lee H, Yang M, Lee E-h, Joung Y-S, Hwang S-t, Hong S-H, et al. Reliability and validity of the Korean version of Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (K-BDEFS). Korean J Clin Psychol 2016;35:519-539. https://doi.org/10.15842/kjcp.2016.35.2.010
  158. Kooij J. Diagnostic instrument. In: Adult ADHD: diagnostic assessment and treatment. 3rd ed. London: Springer-Verlag;2013. p.97-98.
  159. Epstein JN, Johnson DE, Conners CK. Conners' Adult ADHD Diagnostic Interview for $DSM-IV^{TM}$ $(CAADID^{TM})$. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems Inc.;2001.
  160. Huh HN, Kang SH, Hwang SY, Yoo HK. Developmental trajectories of attention in normal Korean population. J Korean Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2019;30:66-73. https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.180033
  161. Holst Y, Thorell LB. Neuropsychological functioning in adults with ADHD and adults with other psychiatric disorders. J Atten Disord 2017;21:137-148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713506264
  162. Mostert JC, Onnink AMH, Klein M, Dammers J, Harneit A, Schulten T, et al. Cognitive heterogeneity in adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic analysis of neuropsychological measurements. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2015;25:2062-2074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.08.010
  163. Skodzik T, Holling H, Pedersen A. Long-term memory performance in adult ADHD. J Atten Disord 2017;21:267-283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713510561
  164. Weyandt LL, Oster DR, Gudmundsdottir BG, DuPaul GJ, Anastopoulos AD. Neuropsychological functioning in college students with and without ADHD. Neuropsychology 2017;31:160-172. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000326
  165. Yoo H, Lee J, Kang SH, Park EH, Jung J, Kim BN, et al. Standardization of the comprehensive attention test for the Korean children and adolescents. J Korean Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009;20:68-75.
  166. Kooij JJ, Burger H, Boonstra AM, Van der Linden PD, Kalma LE, Buitelaar JK. Efficacy and safety of methylphenidate in 45 adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. A randomized placebo-controlled double-blind cross-over trial. Psychol Med 2004;34:973-982. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291703001776
  167. Sobanski E. Psychiatric comorbidity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006;256 Suppl 1:i26-i31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-006-1004-4
  168. Katzman MA, Bilkey TS, Chokka PR, Fallu A, Klassen LJ. Adult ADHD and comorbid disorders: clinical implications of a dimensional approach. BMC Psychiatry 2017;17:302. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1463-3
  169. Miesch M, Deister A. [Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adult psychiatry: data on 12-month prevalence, risk factors and comorbidity]. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 2019;87:32-38. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-119987
  170. Fatseas M, Hurmic H, Serre F, Debrabant R, Daulouede JP, Denis C, et al. Addiction severity pattern associated with adult and childhood Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in patients with addictions. Psychiatry Res 2016;246:656-662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.10.071
  171. Panagiotidi M. Problematic video game play and ADHD traits in an adult population. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2017;20:292-295. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0676
  172. Wang BQ, Yao NQ, Zhou X, Liu J, Lv ZT. The association between attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and internet addiction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry 2017;17:260. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1408-x
  173. Gibbins C, Weiss M. Clinical recommendations in current practice guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of ADHD in adults. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2007;9:420-426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-007-0055-1
  174. Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, Biederman J, Conners CK, Demler O, et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:716-723. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.716
  175. Klassen LJ, Katzman MA, Chokka P. Adult ADHD and its comorbidities, with a focus on bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord 2010;124:1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.036
  176. Pineiro-Dieguez B, Balanza-Martinez V, Garcia-Garcia P, Soler-Lopez B; CAT Study Group. Psychiatric comorbidity at the time of diagnosis in adults with ADHD: The CAT Study. J Atten Disord 2016;20:1066-1075. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713518240
  177. Elkins RM, Carpenter AL, Pincus DB, Comer JS. Inattention symptoms and the diagnosis of comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among youth with generalized anxiety disorder. J Anxiety Disord 2014;28:754-760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.09.003
  178. Reimherr FW, Marchant BK, Gift TE, Steans TA. ADHD and anxiety: clinical significance and treatment implications. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2017;19:109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0859-6
  179. Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Murphy J, Tsuang MT. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comorbid disorders: issues of overlapping symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:1793-1799. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.12.1793
  180. Ramsay JR, Rostain AL. Issues in ADHD in adults. The ADHD Report 2006;14:5-8. https://doi.org/10.1521/adhd.2006.14.6.5
  181. Ramsay JR. What else could it be if it is NOT adult ADHD? [cited 2019 July 15]. Available from URL: https://adhdinadults.com/what-else-could-it-be-if-it-is-not-adult-adhd/.
  182. Moukhtarian TR, Mintah RS, Moran P, Asherson P. Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder. Borderline Personal Disord Emot Dysregul 2018;5:9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40479-018-0086-8
  183. Asherson P, Young AH, Eich-Hochli D, Moran P, Porsdal V, Deberdt W. Differential diagnosis, comorbidity, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in relation to bipolar disorder or borderline personality disorder in adults. Curr Med Res Opin 2014;30:1657-1672. https://doi.org/10.1185/03007995.2014.915800
  184. Matthies SD, Philipsen A. Common ground in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)-review of recent findings. Borderline Personal Disord Emot Dysregul 2014;1:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/2051-6673-1-3
  185. Witt O, Brucher K, Biegel G, Petermann F, Schmidt S. [Adult ADHD versus borderline personality disorder: criteria for differential diagnosis]. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 2014;82:337-345. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1366242
  186. D'Amelio R, Retz W, Philipsen A, Rosler M. Psychoedukation und Coaching ADHS im Erwachsenenalter: Manual zur Leitung von Patienten- und Angehorigengruppen. Munich: Urban & Fischer; 2008.
  187. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management of ADHD in children, young people and adults (NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 72). Leicester: THe British Psychological Society & The Royal College of Psychiatrists;2009.
  188. Bolea-Alamanac B, Nutt DJ, Adamou M, Asherson P, Bazire S, Coghill D, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: update on recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol 2014;28:179-203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881113519509
  189. Volkow ND, Swanson JM. Clinical practice: adult attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. N Engl J Med 2013;369:1935-1944. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMcp1212625
  190. Kooij JJS, Bijlenga D, Salerno L, Jaeschke R, Bitter I, Balazs J, et al. Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. Eur Psychiatry 2019;56:14-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.11.001
  191. Faraone SV, Glatt SJ. A comparison of the efficacy of medications for adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder using meta-analysis of effect sizes. J Clin Psychiatry 2010;71:754-763. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.08m04902pur
  192. Banaschewski T, Coghill D, Santosh P, Zuddas A, Asherson P, Buitelaar J, et al. Long-acting medications for the hyperkinetic disorders. A systematic review and European treatment guideline. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006;15:476-495. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0549-0
  193. Philipsen A, Jans T, Graf E, Matthies S, Borel P, Colla M, et al. Effects of group psychotherapy, individual counseling, methylphenidate, and placebo in the treatment of adult attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2015;72:1199-1210. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.2146
  194. Chang Z, D'Onofrio BM, Quinn PD, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H. Medication for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and risk for depression: a nationwide longitudinal cohort study. Biol Psychiatry 2016;80:916-922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.02.018
  195. Chen Q, Sjolander A, Runeson B, D'Onofrio BM, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H. Drug treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and suicidal behaviour: register based study. BMJ 2014;348:g3769. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g3769
  196. Chang Z, Lichtenstein P, Halldner L, D'Onofrio B, Serlachius E, Fazel S, et al. Stimulant ADHD medication and risk for substance abuse. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2014;55:878-885. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12164
  197. Chang Z, Lichtenstein P, D'Onofrio BM, Sjolander A, Larsson H. Serious transport accidents in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the effect of medication: a populationbased study. JAMA Psychiatry 2014;71:319-325. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.4174
  198. Lichtenstein P, Larsson H. Medication for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and criminality. N Engl J Med 2013;368:776. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1215489
  199. Sharman J, Pennick M. Lisdexamfetamine prodrug activation by peptidase-mediated hydrolysis in the cytosol of red blood cells. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2014;10:2275-2280.
  200. Setyawan J, Hodgkins P, Guerin A, Gauthier G, Cloutier M, Wu EQ, et al. Comparing treatment adherence of lisdexamfetamine and other medications for the treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a retrospective analysis. J Med Econ 2013;16:962-975. https://doi.org/10.3111/13696998.2013.800524
  201. Adler LA, Goodman DW, Kollins SH, Weisler RH, Krishnan S, Zhang Y, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2008;69:1364-1373. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v69n0903
  202. Wigal T, Brams M, Gasior M, Gao J, Squires L, Giblin J; 316 Study Group. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study of the efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: novel findings using a simulated adult workplace environment design. Behav Brain Funct 2010;6:34. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-6-34
  203. Dupaul GJ, Weyandt LL, Rossi JS, Vilardo BA, O'Dell SM, Carson KM, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study of the efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in college students with ADHD. J Atten Disord 2012;16:202-220. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054711427299
  204. Maneeton N, Maneeton B, Suttajit S, Reungyos J, Srisurapanont M, Martin SD. Exploratory meta-analysis on lisdexamfetamine versus placebo in adult ADHD. Drug Des Devel Ther 2014;8:1685-1693.
  205. Coghill DR, Caballero B, Sorooshian S, Civil R. A systematic review of the safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate. CNS Drugs 2014;28:497-511. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40263-014-0166-2
  206. Adler LA, Dirks B, Deas PF, Raychaudhuri A, Dauphin MR, Lasser RA, et al. Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in adults with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder who report clinically significant impairment in executive function: results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry 2013;74:694-702. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.12m08144
  207. Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Rigau D, Bosch R, Nogueira M, Vidal X, et al. Efficacy of methylphenidate for adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-regression analysis. CNS Drugs 2011;25:157-169. https://doi.org/10.2165/11539440-000000000-00000
  208. Epstein T, Patsopoulos NA, Weiser M. Immediate-release methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014:9:CD005041.
  209. Martinez-Raga J, Knecht C, Szerman N, Martinez MI. Risk of serious cardiovascular problems with medications for attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder. CNS Drugs 2013;27:15-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40263-012-0019-9
  210. Coghill D, Banaschewski T, Zuddas A, Pelaz A, Gagliano A, Doepfner M. Long-acting methylphenidate formulations in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review of head-to-head studies. BMC Psychiatry 2013;13:237. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-237
  211. Mick E, McManus DD, Goldberg RJ. Meta-analysis of increased heart rate and blood pressure associated with CNS stimulant treatment of ADHD in adults. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2013;23:534-541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.06.011
  212. Westover AN, Halm EA. Do prescription stimulants increase the risk of adverse cardiovascular events?: A systematic review. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2012;12:41. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2261-12-41
  213. Habel LA, Cooper WO, Sox CM, Chan KA, Fireman BH, Arbogast PG, et al. ADHD medications and risk of serious cardiovascular events in young and middle-aged adults. JAMA 2011;306:2673-2683. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1830
  214. Schelleman H, Bilker WB, Kimmel SE, Daniel GW, Newcomb C, Guevara JP, et al. Methylphenidate and risk of serious cardiovascular events in adults. Am J Psychiatry 2012;169:178-185. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11010125
  215. Shin JY, Roughead EE, Park BJ, Pratt NL. Cardiovascular safety of methylphenidate among children and young people with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): nationwide self controlled case series study. BMJ 2016;353:i2550.
  216. Cunill R, Castells X, Tobias A, Capella D. Atomoxetine for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the adulthood: a meta-analysis and meta-regression. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2013;22:961-969. https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.3473
  217. Adler LA, Liebowitz M, Kronenberger W, Qiao M, Rubin R, Hollandbeck M, et al. Atomoxetine treatment in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbid social anxiety disorder. Depress Anxiety 2009;26:212-221. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20549
  218. Atomoxetine ADHD and Comorbid MDD Study Group, Bangs ME, Emslie GJ, Spencer TJ, Ramsey JL, Carlson C, Bartky EJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of atomoxetine in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and major depression. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2007;17:407-420. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2007.0066
  219. Medori R, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Casas M, Kooij JJ, Niemela A, Trott GE, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of three fixed dosages of prolonged-release OROS methylphenidate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2008;63:981-989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.11.008
  220. Vaughan B, Fegert J, Kratochvil CJ. Update on atomoxetine in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2009;10:669-676. https://doi.org/10.1517/14656560902762873
  221. Maneeton N, Maneeton B, Intaprasert S, Woottiluk P. A systematic review of randomized controlled trials of bupropion versus methylphenidate in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2014;10:1439-1449.
  222. Hamedi M, Mohammdi M, Ghaleiha A, Keshavarzi Z, Jafarnia M, Keramatfar R, et al. Bupropion in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, double-blind study. Acta Med Iran 2014;52:675-680.
  223. Posey DJ, McDougle CJ. Guanfacine and guanfacine extended release: treatment for ADHD and related disorders. CNS Drug Rev 2007;13:465-474. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-3458.2007.00026.x
  224. Huss M, Chen W, Ludolph AG. Guanfacine extended release: a new pharmacological treatment option in Europe. Clin Drug Investig 2016;36:1-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40261-015-0336-0
  225. Butterfield ME, Saal J, Young B, Young JL. Supplementary guanfacine hydrochloride as a treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: a double blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychiatry Res 2016;236:136-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.12.017
  226. Kollins SH, Jain R, Brams M, Segal S, Findling RL, Wigal SB, et al. Clonidine extended-release tablets as add-on therapy to psychostimulants in children and adolescents with ADHD. Pediatrics 2011;127:e1406-e1413. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1260
  227. Jain R, Segal S, Kollins SH, Khayrallah M. Clonidine extendedrelease tablets for pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2011;50:171-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.11.005
  228. Palumbo DR, Sallee FR, Pelham WE Jr, Bukstein OG, Daviss WB, McDERMOTT MP; CAT STUDY TEAM. Clonidine for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Efficacy and tolerability outcomes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008;47:180-188. https://doi.org/10.1097/chi.0b013e31815d9af7
  229. Hazell PL, Stuart JE. A randomized controlled trial of clonidine added to psychostimulant medication for hyperactive and aggressive children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003;42:886-894. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000046908.27264.00
  230. Otasowie J, Castells X, Ehimare UP, Smith CH. Tricyclic antidepressants for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;9:CD006997.
  231. Prince JB, Wilens TE, Biederman J, Spencer TJ, Millstein R, Polisner DA, et al. A controlled study of nortriptyline in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2000;10:193-204. https://doi.org/10.1089/10445460050167304
  232. Weiss M, Hechtman L; Adult ADHD Research Group. A randomized double-blind trial of paroxetine and/or dextroamphetamine and problem-focused therapy for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults. J Clin Psychiatry 2006;67:611-619. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v67n0412
  233. Arnold VK, Feifel D, Earl CQ, Yang R, Adler LA. A 9-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, dosefinding study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of modafinil as treatment for adults with ADHD. J Atten Disord 2014;18:133-144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054712441969
  234. Riahi F, Tehrani-Doost M, Shahrivar Z, Alaghband-Rad J. Efficacy of reboxetine in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Hum Psychopharmacol 2010;25:570-576. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.1158
  235. Ghanizadeh A. A systematic review of reboxetine for treating patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Nord J Psychiatry 2015;69:241-248. https://doi.org/10.3109/08039488.2014.972975
  236. Seixas M, Weiss M, Muller U. Systematic review of national and international guidelines on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Psychopharmacol 2012;26:753-765. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111412095
  237. Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Kahle J, Young S. Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. PLoS One 2015;10:e0116407. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116407
  238. Philipsen A. Psychotherapy in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: implications for treatment and research. Expert Rev Neurother 2012;12:1217-1225. https://doi.org/10.1586/ern.12.91
  239. Mongia M, Hechtman L. Cognitive behavior therapy for adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review of recent randomized controlled trials. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2012;14:561-567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0303-x
  240. Hirvikoski T, Waaler E, Alfredsson J, Pihlgren C, Holmstrom A, Johnson A, et al. Reduced ADHD symptoms in adults with ADHD after structured skills training group: results from a randomized controlled trial. Behav Res Ther 2011;49:175-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2011.01.001
  241. Young S, Emilsson B, Sigurdsson JF, Khondoker M, Philipp- Wiegmann F, Baldursson G, et al. A randomized controlled trial reporting functional outcomes of cognitive-behavioural therapy in medication-treated adults with ADHD and comorbid psychopathology. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2017;267:267-276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-016-0735-0
  242. Jensen CM, Amdisen BL, Jorgensen KJ, Arnfred SM. Cognitive behavioural therapy for ADHD in adults: systematic review and meta-analyses. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord 2016;8:3-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-016-0188-3
  243. Weiss M, Safren SA, Solanto MV, Hechtman L, Rostain AL, Ramsay JR, et al. Research forum on psychological treatment of adults with ADHD. J Atten Disord 2008;11:642-651. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054708315063

Cited by

  1. The Past Four Years Research Work of the Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Special Interest Group in the Korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry vol.31, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.190031
  2. Being a Chameleon vol.31, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.190042
  3. Diagnostic Distribution of Psychiatric Disorders among Korean Young Adults vol.31, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.200008
  4. Preliminary Study of ADHD Biomarkers in Adults with Focus on Serum Iron and Transcranial Sonography of the Substantia Nigra vol.18, pp.9, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094875
  5. Combined Medication with Stimulants and Non-stimulants for Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder vol.19, pp.4, 2021, https://doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2021.19.4.705