DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Current Status of Solar-energy-based CO2 Conversion to Fuels

태양에너지를 이용한 이산화탄소 전환 기술의 현황

  • Kim, Ye Ji (Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)) ;
  • Kim, Jong Min (Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)) ;
  • Jung, Yeon Sik (Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST))
  • 김예지 (신소재공학과, 한국과학기술원) ;
  • 김종민 (신소재공학과, 한국과학기술원) ;
  • 정연식 (신소재공학과, 한국과학기술원)
  • Received : 2017.09.18
  • Accepted : 2017.12.05
  • Published : 2017.12.31

Abstract

As a promising solution to global warming and growing energy demand, photocatalytic $CO_2$ conversion to useful fuels is widely studied to enhance the activity and selectivity of the $CO_2$ photoreduction reactions. In this review, an overview of fundamental aspects of the $CO_2$ reduction photocatalysts is provided. The recent development of the photocatalyst is also discussed, focusing on the mechanisms of light harvesting and charge transfer. Besides, this review sets its sight on inspiring new ideas toward a practical $CO_2$ conversion technology.

Keywords

References

  1. Y. Hori,"Electrochemical $CO_{2}$ reduction on metalelectrodes." In Modern aspects of electrochemistry, Springer: pp. 89-189. 2008.
  2. M. Halmann, "Photoelectrochemical reduction of aqueous carbon dioxide on p-type gallium phosphide in liquid junction solar cells." In Nature, Vol. 275, pp. 115-116. 1978. https://doi.org/10.1038/275115a0
  3. P. Russell, et al., "The electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide, formic acid, and formaldehyde." In Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Vol. 124, pp. 1329-1338. 1977. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2133624
  4. P. S. Surdhar, et al., "Reduction potential of the carboxyl radical anion in aqueous solutions." In The Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 93, pp. 3360-3363. 1989. https://doi.org/10.1021/j100345a094
  5. J. Qiao, et al., "A review of catalysts for the electroreduction of carbon dioxide to produce low-carbon fuels." In Chemical Society Reviews, Vol. 43, pp. 631-675. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3CS60323G
  6. K. Rajeshwar, et al., "Environmental electrochemistry: Fundamentals and applications in pollution sensors and abatement." Academic press. 1997.
  7. F. Meng, et al., "Visible light photocatalytic activity of nitrogen- doped $La_{2}Ti_{2}O_{7}$ nanosheets originating from band gap narrowing." In Nano Research, Vol. 5, pp. 213-221. 2012. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-012-0201-x
  8. P. Kissinger, et al., "Laboratory Techniques in Electroanalytical Chemistry, revised and expanded." CRC press. 1996.
  9. W. Tu, et al., "Photocatalytic Conversion of $CO_{2}$ into Renewable Hydrocarbon Fuels: State-of-the-Art Accomplishment, Challenges, and Prospects." In Advanced Materials, Vol. 26, pp. 4607-4626. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201400087
  10. J. Li, et al., "Semiconductor-based photocatalysts and photoelectrochemical cells for solar fuel generation: a review." In Catalysis Science & Technology, Vol. 5, pp. 1360-1384. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CY00974F
  11. B. Kumar, et al., "Photochemical and photoelectrochemical reduction of $CO_{2}$." In Annual review of physical chemistry, Vol. 63, pp. 541-569. 2012. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physchem-032511-143759
  12. S. N. Habisreutinger, et al., "Photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$ on $TiO_{2}$ and other semiconductors." In Angewandte Chemie International Edition, Vol. 52, pp. 7372-7408. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201207199
  13. Y.-P. Yuan, et al., "Hetero-nanostructured suspended photocatalysts for solar-to-fuel conversion." In Energy & Environmental Science, Vol. 7, pp. 3934-3951. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4EE02914C
  14. S. Das, et al., "A review on advances in photocatalysts towards $CO_{2}$ conversion." In RSC Advances, Vol. 4, pp. 20856-20893. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra01769b
  15. G. Mele, et al., "Photoreduction of carbon dioxide to formic acid in aqueous suspension: a comparison between phthalocyanine/$TiO_{2}$ and porphyrin/$TiO_{2}$ catalysed processes." In Molecules, Vol. 20, pp. 396-415. 2014. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules20010396
  16. X. Zhang, et al., "Recent advances in dye-sensitized semiconductor systems for photocatalytic hydrogen production." In Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Vol. 4, pp. 2365-2402. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5TA08939E
  17. S. Wang, et al., "A stable Zn$CO_{2}$ O 4 cocatalyst for photocatalytic $CO_{2}$ reduction." In Chemical Communications, Vol. 51, pp. 1517-1519. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CC07225A
  18. J. Yin, et al., "Self-supported nanoporous $NiCO_{2}O_{4}$ nanowires with cobalt-nickel layered oxide nanosheets for overall water splitting." In Nanoscale, Vol. 8, pp. 1390-1400. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5NR06197K
  19. Z. Wang, et al., "Reinforced photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$ to CO by a ternary metal oxide $NiCO_{2}O_{4}$." In Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Vol. 17, pp. 16040-16046. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CP01997D
  20. P. Kumar, et al., "Heterostructured nanocomposite tin phthalocyanine@mesoporous ceria ($SnPc@CeO_{2}$) for photoreduction of $CO_{2}$ in visible light." In RSC Advances, Vol. 5, pp. 42414-42421. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA06449J
  21. P. Kumar, et al., "Nitrogen-doped graphene-supported copper complex: a novel photocatalyst for $CO_{2}$ reduction under visible light irradiation." In RSC Advances, Vol. 5, pp. 54929-54935. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA05319F
  22. P. Kumar, et al., "Photo-induced reduction of $CO_{2}$ using a magnetically separable $Ru-CoPc@TiO_{2}@SiO_{2}@Fe_{3}O_{4}$ catalyst under visible light irradiation." In Dalton Transactions, Vol. 44, pp. 4546-4553. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4DT02461C
  23. R. Kuriki, et al., "Visible-Light-Driven $CO_{2}$ Reduction with Carbon Nitride: Enhancing the Activity of Ruthenium Catalysts." In Angewandte Chemie International Edition, Vol. 54, pp. 2406-2409. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201411170
  24. D.-I. Won, et al., "Highly Robust Hybrid Photocatalyst for Carbon Dioxide Reduction: Tuning and Optimization of Catalytic Activities of Dye/$TiO_{2}$/Re (I) Organic-Inorganic Ternary Systems." In Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 137, pp. 13679-13690. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.5b08890
  25. T. Phongamwong, et al., "Role of chlorophyll in spirulina on photocatalytic activity of $CO_{2}$ reduction under visible light over modified N-doped $TiO_{2}$ photocatalysts." In Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, Vol. 168, pp. 114-124. 2015.
  26. P. Kumar, et al., "A novel Ru/$TiO_{2}$ hybrid nanocomposite catalyzed photoreduction of $CO_{2}$ to methanol under visible light." In Nanoscale, Vol. 7, pp. 15258-15267. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5NR03712C
  27. Y. Ma, et al., "Titanium dioxide-based nanomaterials for photocatalytic fuel generations." In Chemical reviews, Vol. 114, pp. 9987-10043. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr500008u
  28. W. Yu, et al., "Enhanced photocatalytic activity of $gC_{3}N_{4}$ for selective $CO_{2}$ reduction to $CH_{3}OH$ via facile coupling of ZnO: a direct Z-scheme mechanism." In Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Vol. 3, pp. 19936-19947. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5TA05503B
  29. T. Inoue, et al., "Photoelectrocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide in aqueous suspensions of semiconductor powders." In Nature, Vol. 277, pp. 637-638. 1979. https://doi.org/10.1038/277637a0
  30. L. Liu, et al., "Photocatalytic $CO_{2}$ reduction with $H_{2}O$ on $TiO_{2}$ nanocrystals: Comparison of anatase, rutile, and brookite polymorphs and exploration of surface chemistry." In Acs Catalysis, Vol. 2, pp. 1817-1828. 2012. https://doi.org/10.1021/cs300273q
  31. M. Ge, et al., "A review of one-dimensional $TiO_{2}$ nanostructured materials for environmental and energy applications." In Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Vol. 4, pp. 6772-6801. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5TA09323F
  32. J. Yu, et al., "Enhanced photocatalytic $CO_{2}$-reduction activity of anatase $TiO_{2}$ by coexposed {001} and {101} facets." In Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 136, pp. 8839-8842. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja5044787
  33. Q. Xu, et al., "Cubic anatase $TiO_{2}$ nanocrystals with enhanced photocatalytic $CO_{2}$ reduction activity." In Chemical Communications, Vol. 51, pp. 7950-7953. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CC01087J
  34. Y. Yan, et al., "Slightly hydrogenated $TiO_{2}$ with enhanced photocatalytic performance." In Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Vol. 2, pp. 12708-12716. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TA02192D
  35. M. Manzanares, et al., "Engineering the $TiO_{2}$ outermost layers using magnesium for carbon dioxide photoreduction." In Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, Vol. 150, pp. 57-62. 2014.
  36. Y. Liao, et al., "Efficient $CO_{2}$ Capture and Photoreduction by Amine-Functionalized $TiO_{2}$." In Chemistry-A European Journal, Vol. 20, pp. 10220-10222. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201403321
  37. R. Asahi, et al., "Visible-light photocatalysis in nitrogen-doped titanium oxides." In science, Vol. 293, pp. 269-271. 2001. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1061051
  38. Z. Zhang, et al., "Product selectivity of visible-light photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide using titanium dioxide doped by different nitrogen-sources." In Applied Surface Science, Vol. 355, pp. 45-51. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.07.097
  39. S. K. Parayil, et al., "Photocatalytic conversion of $CO_{2}$ to hydrocarbon fuel using carbon and nitrogen co-doped sodium titanate nanotubes." In Applied Catalysis A: General, Vol. 498, pp. 205-213. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2015.03.044
  40. F. Gonell, et al., "Copper-doped titania photocatalysts for simultaneous reduction of $CO_{2}$ and production of $H_{2}$ from aqueous sulfide." In Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, Vol. 180, pp. 263-270. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2015.06.019
  41. O. Ola, et al., "Copper based $TiO_{2}$ honeycomb monoliths for $CO_{2}$ photoreduction." In Catalysis Science & Technology, Vol. 4, pp. 1631-1637. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3CY00991B
  42. M. Park, et al., "Effective CH 4 production from $CO_{2}$ photoreduction using $TiO_{2}$/xmol%Cu-$TiO_{2}$ double-layered films." In Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 103, pp. 431-438. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.06.029
  43. J. Y. Do, et al., "Dramatic $CO_{2}$ photoreduction with $H_{2}O$ vapors for $CH_{4}$ production using the $TiO_{2}$ (bottom)/Fe-$TiO_{2}$ (top) double-layered films." In Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 275, pp. 288-297. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.03.066
  44. T. Wang, et al., "In situ synthesis of ordered mesoporous Co-doped $TiO_{2}$ and its enhanced photocatalytic activity and selectivity for the reduction of $CO_{2}$." In Journal of materials chemistry A, Vol. 3, pp. 9491-9501. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TA05892E
  45. B. S. Kwak, et al., "Methane formation from photoreduction of $CO_{2}$ with water using $TiO_{2}$ including Ni ingredient." In Fuel, Vol. 143, pp. 570-576. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.11.066
  46. Z. Xiong, et al., "Efficient photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$ into liquid products over cerium doped titania nanoparticles synthesized by a sol-gel auto-ignited method." In Fuel Processing Technology, Vol. 135, pp. 6-13. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.09.017
  47. L. Matejova, et al., "Preparation, characterization and photocatalytic properties of cerium doped $TiO_{2}$: on the effect of Ce loading on the photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide." In Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, Vol. 152, pp. 172-183. 2014.
  48. H.-Y. Wu, et al., "Photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$ using molybdenum-doped titanate nanotubes in a MEA solution." In RSC Advances, Vol. 5, pp. 63142-63151. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA10408D
  49. M. Tahir, et al., "Indium-doped $TiO_{2}$ nanoparticles for photocatalytic $CO_{2}$ reduction with $H_{2}O$ vapors to $CH_{4}$." In Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, Vol. 162, pp. 98-109. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2014.06.037
  50. X. Xia, et al., "Solution synthesis of metal oxides for electrochemical energy storage applications." In Nanoscale, Vol. 6, pp. 5008-5048. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4NR00024B
  51. X. Meng, et al., "Photocatalytic $CO_{2}$ conversion over alkali modified $TiO_{2}$ without loading noble metal cocatalyst." In Chemical Communications, Vol. 50, pp. 11517-11519. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CC04848B
  52. J. Di, et al., "Biomimetic CNT@ $TiO_{2}$ composite with enhanced photocatalytic properties." In Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 281, pp. 60-68. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.06.067
  53. E. Liu, et al., "Photoconversion of $CO_{2}$ to methanol over plasmonic Ag/$TiO_{2}$ nano-wire films enhanced by overlapped visible- light-harvesting nanostructures." In Ceramics International, Vol. 41, pp. 1049-1057. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2014.09.027
  54. Y. Zhang, et al., "Fabrication of Oxygen-Doped Double-Shelled GaN Hollow Spheres toward Efficient Photoreduction of $CO_{2}$." In Particle & Particle Systems Characterization, Vol. 33, pp. 583-588. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppsc.201500235
  55. T. Sun, et al., "Enhanced hydrogen evolution from water splitting using Fe-Ni codoped and Ag deposited anatase $TiO_{2}$ synthesized by solvothermal method." In Applied Surface Science, Vol. 347, pp. 696-705. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.04.162
  56. W. Tu, et al., "Au@ $TiO_{2}$ yolk-shell hollow spheres for plasmon-induced photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$ to solar fuel via a local electromagnetic field." In Nanoscale, Vol. 7, pp. 14232-14236. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5NR02943K
  57. S. t. Neatu, et al., "Gold-copper nanoalloys supported on $TiO_{2}$ as photocatalysts for $CO_{2}$ reduction by water." In Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 136, pp. 15969-15976. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja506433k
  58. Z. Zhang, et al., "Au/Pt nanoparticle-decorated $TiO_{2}$ nanofibers with plasmon-enhanced photocatalytic activities for solar-to-fuel conversion." In The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, Vol. 117, pp. 25939-25947. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp409311x
  59. Z. Xiong, et al., "Photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$ on $Pt^{2+}-Pt^{0}$/$TiO_{2}$ nanoparticles under UV/Vis light irradiation: a combination of $Pt^{2+}$ doping and Pt nanoparticles deposition." In International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 40, pp. 10049-10062. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.06.075
  60. J. Mao, et al., "Pt-loading reverses the photocatalytic activity order of anatase $TiO_{2}$ {001} and {010} facets for photoreduction of $CO_{2}$ to CH 4." In Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, Vol. 144, pp. 855-862. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2013.08.027
  61. L. Ye, et al., "Opposite photocatalytic activity orders of low-index facets of anatase $TiO_{2}$ for liquid phase dye degradation and gaseous phase $CO_{2}$ photoreduction." In Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Vol. 16, pp. 15675-15680. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4cp01488j
  62. T. Ohno, et al., "Photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$ over exposed- crystal-face-controlled $TiO_{2}$ nanorod having a brookite phase with co-catalyst loading." In Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, Vol. 152, pp. 309-316. 2014.
  63. Q. Li, et al., "Photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$ on MgO/$TiO_{2}$ nanotube films." In Applied Surface Science, Vol. 314, pp. 458-463. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.07.019
  64. J. Fu, et al., "Enhanced photocatalytic $CO_{2}$-reduction activity of electrospun mesoporous $TiO_{2}$ nanofibers by solvothermal treatment." In Dalton Transactions, Vol. 43, pp. 9158-9165. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4dt00181h
  65. G. Yin, et al., "Photocatalytic carbon dioxide reduction by copper oxide nanocluster-grafted niobate nanosheets." In ACS nano, Vol. 9, pp. 2111-2119. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn507429e
  66. Y. Huang, et al., "Preparation of 2D hydroxyl-rich carbon nitride nanosheets for photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$." In RSC Advances, Vol. 5, pp. 33254-33261. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA04227E
  67. W.-N. Wang, et al., "Surface engineered CuO nanowires with ZnO islands for $CO_{2}$ photoreduction." In ACS applied materials & interfaces, Vol. 7, pp. 5685-5692. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1021/am508590j
  68. Y. Yu, et al., "A new $Ni/Ni_{3}(BO_{3})_{2}/NiO$ heterostructured photocatalyst with efficient reduction of $CO_{2}$ into $CH_{4}$." In Separation and Purification Technology, Vol. 142, pp. 14-17. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2014.12.014
  69. H. Park, et al., "Artificial photosynthesis of $C_{1}-C_{3}$ hydrocarbons from water and $CO_{2}$ on titanate nanotubes decorated with nanoparticle elemental copper and CdS quantum dots." In The Journal of Physical Chemistry A, Vol. 119, pp. 4658-4666. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp511329d
  70. M. M. Gui, et al., "One-pot synthesis of Ag-MWCNT@ $TiO_{2}$ core-shell nanocomposites for photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$ with water under visible light irradiation." In Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 278, pp. 272-278. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2014.09.022
  71. M. M. Gui, et al., "Visible-light-driven MWCNT@ $TiO_{2}$ core- shell nanocomposites and the roles of MWCNTs on the surface chemistry, optical properties and reactivity in $CO_{2}$ photoreduction." In RSC Advances, Vol. 4, pp. 24007-24013. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA02561J
  72. M. M. Gui, et al., "Enhanced visible light responsive MWCNT/ $TiO_{2}$ core-shell nanocomposites as the potential photocatalyst for reduction of $CO_{2}$ into methane." In Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Vol. 122, pp. 183-189. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2013.11.034
  73. M. A. Asi, et al., "Visible-light-harvesting reduction of $CO_{2}$ to chemical fuels with plasmonic Ag@AgBr/CNT nanocomposites." In Catalysis today, Vol. 216, pp. 268-275. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2013.05.021
  74. Z. Fang, et al., "Comparison of catalytic activity of carbonbased AgBr nanocomposites for conversion of $CO_{2}$ under visible light." In Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, Vol. 18, pp. 299-307. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jscs.2013.08.003
  75. Q. Zhang, et al., "Photoreduction of carbon dioxide by graphene-titania and zeolite-titania composites under low-intensity irradiation." In Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, Vol. 30, pp. 162-168. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2014.09.049
  76. J. Benedetti, et al., "Synthesis and characterization of a quaternary nanocomposite based on $TiO_{2}$/CdS/rGO/Pt and its application in the photoreduction of $CO_{2}$ to methane under visible light." In Rsc Advances, Vol. 5, pp. 33914-33922. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA15605F
  77. W.-J. Ong, et al., "Graphene oxide as a structure-directing agent for the two-dimensional interface engineering of sandwich- like graphene-$gC_{3}N_{4}$ hybrid nanostructures with enhanced visible-light photoreduction of $CO_{2}$ to methane." In Chemical Communications, Vol. 51, pp. 858-861. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CC08996K
  78. W. Tu, et al., "An In Situ Simultaneous Reduction-Hydrolysis Technique for Fabrication of $TiO_{2}$-Graphene 2D Sandwich- Like Hybrid Nanosheets: Graphene-Promoted Selectivity of Photocatalytic-Driven Hydrogenation and Coupling of $CO_{2}$ into Methane and Ethane." In Advanced Functional Materials, Vol. 23, pp. 1743-1749. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201202349
  79. L. Zhang, et al., "ZnO-reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites as efficient photocatalysts for photocatalytic reduction of $CO_{2}$." In Ceramics International, Vol. 41, pp. 6256-6262. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.01.044
  80. 8A. Wang, et al., "Preparation and characterizations of BiVO 4/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites with higher visible light reduction activities." In Journal of colloid and interface science, Vol. 445, pp. 330-336. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2015.01.017
  81. H. Li, et al., "Carbon Quantum Dots/Cu2O Heterostructures for Solar-Light-Driven Conversion of $CO_{2}$ to Methanol." In Advanced Energy Materials, Vol. 5. 2015.
  82. W.-J. Ong, et al., "Heterostructured AgX/$gC_{3}N_{4}$ (X= Cl and Br) nanocomposites via a sonication-assisted deposition-precipitation approach: Emerging role of halide ions in the synergistic photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide." In Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, Vol. 180, pp. 530-543. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2015.06.053
  83. H. Shi, et al., "Conversion of $CO_{2}$ into renewable fuel over Pt-$gC_{3}N_{4}$/$KNbO_{3} $ composite photocatalyst." In RSC Advances, Vol. 5, pp. 93615-93622. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA16870H
  84. S. Wang, et al., "Semiconductor-redox catalysis promoted by metal-organic frameworks for $CO_{2}$ reduction." In Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Vol. 16, pp. 14656-14660. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4cp02173h
  85. W.-J. Ong, et al., "Surface charge modification via protonation of graphitic carbon nitride ($gC_{3}N_{4}$) for electrostatic self-assembly construction of 2D/2D reduced graphene oxide (rGO)/$gC_{3}N_{4}$ nanostructures toward enhanced photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to methane." In Nano Energy, Vol. 13, pp. 757-770. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.03.014
  86. L. Shi, et al., "Electrostatic Self-Assembly of Nanosized Carbon Nitride Nanosheet onto a Zirconium Metal-Organic Framework for Enhanced Photocatalytic $CO_{2}$ Reduction." In Advanced functional materials, Vol. 25, pp. 5360-5367. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201502253
  87. Y. Wei, et al., "3D ordered macroporous $TiO_{2}$-supported Pt@ CdS core-shell nanoparticles: design, synthesis and efficient photocatalytic conversion of $CO_{2}$ with water to methane." In Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Vol. 3, pp. 11074-11085. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5TA00444F
  88. P. Li, et al., "All-solid-state Z-scheme system arrays of Fe 2 V 4 O 13/RGO/CdS for visible light-driving photocatalytic $CO_{2}$ reduction into renewable hydrocarbon fuel." In Chemical Communications, Vol. 51, pp. 800-803. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CC08744E
  89. J. L. White, et al., "Light-driven heterogeneous reduction of carbon dioxide: Photocatalysts and photoelectrodes." In Chemical reviews, Vol. 115, pp. 12888-12935. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00370
  90. K. Li, et al., "Recent advances in heterogeneous photocatalytic $CO_{2}$ conversion to solar fuels." 2016.
  91. J. Wang, et al., "$Cu_{2}O/TiO_{2}$ heterostructure nanotube arrays prepared by an electrodeposition method exhibiting enhanced photocatalytic activity for $CO_{2}$ reduction to methanol." In Catalysis Communications, Vol. 46, pp. 17-21. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catcom.2013.11.011