CELLMED (셀메드)

Cellmed Orthocellular Medicine and Pharmaceutical Association (셀메드 세포교정의약학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Anticonvulsant potential of some medicinal plants and their beneficial properties

  • Received : 2013.05.03
  • Accepted : 2013.11.08
  • Published : 2013.11.30
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Epilepsy has now become the most serious brain disorder. A number of synthetic antiepileptic drugs are available in practice, however their effectiveness does not grip true with the entire population suffering from epilepsy. Traditional systems of medicine are popular in developing countries and most of the population relies on traditional medicines for their primary health care need. Medicinal plants to be an important source of traditional medicines. Various plants are used for the treatment of epilepsy in traditional system of medicines and various plants are yet to be scientifically investigated. Phytoconstituents have been the basis of treatment of human diseases including epilepsy. Herbal products are extensively used for the treatment of many diseases worldwide and where allopathic fails or has severe side effects. Psycho neural drugs are also have very serious side effects like physical dependence, tolerance, deterioration of cognitive function and effect on respiratory, digestive and immune system. So the treatments through herbal medicines are widely used across the world due to their wide applicability and therapeutic efficacy with least side effects, which in turn has accelerated the research regarding natural therapy. In this review we have summarized some herbal antiepileptics.

Keywords

References

  1. Achliya GS, Wadodkar SG, Dode AK. Evaluation of sedative and anticonvulsant activities of Unmadnashak ghrita. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;94:77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.04.020
  2. AchIiya GS, Wadodkar SG, Dorley AK. Evaluation of CNS activity of Bramhi Ghrita. Ind J Pharmacol. 2005;37:33-36. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7613.13853
  3. Amabeoku GJ, Anticonvulsant activity of Nylandtia spinosa L. Dumont (Polygalaceae) aqueous and methanol leaf extracts in mice. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2008;27:811-818. https://doi.org/10.1177/0960327108099538
  4. Ambawade SD, Kasture VS, Kasture SB. Anticonvulsant activity of roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza glabra. Indian J Pharmacol. 2002;34:251-255.
  5. Amos S, Kolawole E, Akah P, Wambebe C, Gamaniel K. Behavioral effects of the aqueous extract of Guiera senegalensis in mice and rats. Phytomedicine. 2001;8:356-361. https://doi.org/10.1078/0944-7113-00056
  6. Arumugam S, Palanivelu A, Retnasamy G, Ramaiyan D. Study on the Antiseizure Activities of Inner Bark of Guettarda Speciosa (L.). Iran J Pharmacol & Therapeutics. 2009;8:73-76.
  7. Bagheri SM, Sahebkar A, Gohari AR, Saeidnia S, Malmir M, Iranshahi M, Evaluation of cytotoxicity and anticonvulsant activity of some Iranian medicinal Ferula species. Pharm BioI. 2010;48:242-246. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880200903081796
  8. Balakrishnan S, Pandhi P, Bhargava VK. Effect of nimodipine on the efficacy of commonly used antiepileptic drugs in rats. Ind J Exp BioI. 1998;36:51-54.
  9. Balamurugan G, Muralidharan P, Selvarajan S. Anti Epileptic Activity of Poly Herbal Extract from Indian Medicinal Plants. J Sci Res. 2009;1;153-159.
  10. Barar FSK. Essentials of Pharmacotheraputics. (Newdelhi, India: Chand and Company Ltd. Publishers), 2000.
  11. Bharal N, Sahaya K, Jain S, Mediratta PK, Sharma KK, Curcumin has anticonvulsant activity on increasing current electroshock seizures in mice. Phytother Res. 2008;22:1660-1664. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.2551
  12. Bialer M, Johannessen SI, Kupferberg HJ, Levy RH, Perucca E, Tomson T. Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: a summary of the Seventh Eilat Conference (EILAT VII). Epilepsy Res. 2004;61:1-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2004.07.010
  13. Bialer M. New antiepileptic drugs that are second generation to existing antiepileptic drugs. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2006;15:637-647. https://doi.org/10.1517/13543784.15.6.637
  14. Bienvenu E, Amabeoku GJ, Eagles PK, Scott G, Springfield EP. Anticonvulsant activity of aqueous extract of Leonotis leonurus. Phytomedicine. 2002;9:217-223. https://doi.org/10.1078/0944-7113-00103
  15. Birbeck G, Chomba E, Atadzhanov M , Mbewe E , Haworth A. The social and economic impact of epilepsy in Zambia: a cross-sectional study. Lancet NeuroI. 2007;6:39-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70629-9
  16. Bodhankar SL, Vyawahare NS. A Text book of Pathophysiology. (Pune, India: Nirali Prakashan), 2005.
  17. Bopaiah CP, Pradhan N. Central nervous system stimulatory action from the root extract of Plumbago zeylanica in rats. Phytother Res. 2001;15:153-156. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.702
  18. Bum EN, Taiwe GS, Nkainsa LA, Moto FC, Seke Etet PF, Hiana IR, Bailabar T, Rouyatou, Seyni P, Rakotonirina A, Rakotonirina SV, Validation of anticonvulsant and sedative activity of six medicinal plants. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;14:454-458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.12.022
  19. Bum EN, Schmutz M, Meyer C, Rakotonirina A, Bopelet M, Portet C, Jeker A, Rakotonirina SV, Olpe HR, Herrling P. Anticonvulsant properties of the methanolic extract of Cyperus articulatus (Cyperaceae). J EthnopharmacoI. 2001;76:145-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00192-1
  20. Bum EN, Dawack DL, Schmutz M, Rakotonirina A, Rakotonirina SV, Portet C, Jeker A, Olpe HR, Herrling P. Anticonvulsant activity of Mimosa pudica decoction. Fitoterapia. 2004;75:309-314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2004.01.012
  21. Burkill HM. The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. 2nd ed. (Kew, UK Royal Botanical Garden), pp. 26-30, 2000.
  22. Cambie RC, Ash J. Fijian Medicinal Plants. (Clayton South VIC, Australia: CSIRO), pp. 255, 1994.
  23. Cardoso Vilela F, Soncini R, Giusti-Paiva A. Anxiolytic-like effect of Sonchus oleraceus L. in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124;325-327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.04.029
  24. Carrasco MC, Vallejo JR, Pardo-de-Santayana M, Peral D, Martin MA, Altimiras J, Interactions of Valeriana officinalis L. and Passiflora incarnata L. in a patient treated with lorazepam. Phytother Res. 2009;23:1795-1796. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.2847
  25. Chao JY, Baik KU, Jung JH, Park MH. In vitro antiinflammatory effects of cynaropicrin, a sesquiterpene lactone, from Sassurea lappa. Eur J Pharmacol. 2000;398:399-407. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(00)00337-X
  26. Ching FP, Omogbai EK, Otokiti IO, Aqueous stern bark extract of Stereospermum kunthianum (Cham, Sandrine Petit) protects against generalized seizures in pentylenetetrazole and electro-convulsive models in rodents. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2009;6:544-548.
  27. Chisholm D. Cost-effectiveness of first-line antiepileptic drug treatments in the developing world: a population-level analysis. Epilepsia. 2005;46:751-759. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2005.52704.x
  28. Chitime HR, Chandra M, Kaushik S. Studies on anti-diarrhoeal activity of calotropis gigantea r.br. in experimental animals. J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2004;7:70-75.
  29. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, 1st ed. (New Delhi, India:National Institute of Science Communication), pp. 85-126, 1996.
  30. Cockerell OC, Johnson AL, Sander JW, Hart YM, Shorvon SD. Remission of epilepsy: results from the National general Practice study of epilepsy. Lancet. 1995;346:140-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(95)91208-8
  31. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. The Wealth of India - A Dictionary of Indian Raw materials and Industrial products, Vol. 10. (New Delhi, India:CSIR), pp. 581-585, 1995.
  32. Curio M, Jacone H, Perrut J, Pinto AC, Filho VF, Silva RC, Acute effect of Copaifera reticulata Ducke copaiba oil in rats tested in the elevated plus-maze: an ethological analysis. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2009;61:1105-1110. https://doi.org/10.1211/jpp.61.08.0015
  33. Debnath S, Kannadasan M, Ghosh S, Ghosh NS, Chakraborty R, Sen S. Antiepileptic activity of the hydroalcoholic extract of Erythrina fusca LOllI. bark against the animal models of MES, PTX and PTZ induced epileptic seizure models. Int J Chem Res. 2010;1:6-10.
  34. Devinsky O. Cognitive and behavioral effects of antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia. 1995;36:S46-S65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1995.tb05999.x
  35. Dwivedi C. Antiepileptic Drugs. Am J Pharm Educ. 2001;65:197-202.
  36. Fisher RS, van Emde Boas W, Blume W, Elger C, Genton P, Lee P, Engel J Jr. Epileptic seizures and epilepsy: Definitions proposed by the international league against epilepsy (ilae) and the international bureau for epilepsy (ibe). Epilepsia. 2005;46:470-472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0013-9580.2005.66104.x
  37. French J, Smith M, Faught E, Brown L. Practice advisory: The use of felbamate in the treatment of patients with intractable epilepsy: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Neurology. 1999;52:1540-1545. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.52.8.1540
  38. French JA, Kanner AM, Bautista J, Abou-Khalil B, Browne T, Harden CL, Theodore WH, Bazil C, Stern J, Schachter SC, Bergen D, Hirtz D, Montouris GD, Nespeca M, Gidal B, Marks WJ Jr, Turk WR, Fischer JH, Bourgeois B, Wilner A, Faught RE Jr, Sachdeo RC, Beydoun A, Glauser, TA. Efficacy and tolerability of the new antiepileptic drugs i: Treatment of new onset epilepsy: Report of the therapeutics and technology assessment subcommittee and quality standards subcommittee of the american academy of neurology and the american epilepsy society. Epilepsia. 2004;5:401-409.
  39. Fulzele SV, Bhurchandi PM, Kanoje VM, Joshi SB, DorIe AK. Immunostimulant activity of Ashtamangal ghrita in rats. Indian J Pharmacol. 2002;34:194-197.
  40. Gerlach AC, Krajewski JL. Antiepileptic Drug Discovery and Development: What Have We Learned and Where Are We Going? Pharmaceuticals. 2010;3:2884-2899. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph3092884
  41. Gilani AH, Aziz N, Khan MA, Shaheen F, Jabeen Q, Siddiqui BS, Herzig JW. Ethnopharmacological evaluation of the anticonvulsant, sedative and antispasmodic activities of Lavandula stoechas L. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;71:161-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00198-1
  42. Giraldo SE, Rincon J, Puebla P, Marder M, Wasowski C, Vergel N, Guerrero MF, Isovaleramide, an anticonvulsant molecule isolated from Valeriana pavonii. Biomedica. 2010;30:245-250. https://doi.org/10.7705/biomedica.v30i2.187
  43. Gomes PB, Noronha EC, de Melo CT, Bezerra JN, Neto MA, Lino CS, Vasconcelos SM, Viana GS, de Sousa FC, Central effects of isolated fractions from the root of Petiveria alliacea L. (tipi) in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;120:209-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.08.012
  44. Gonzalez-Trujano ME, Lopez-Meraz L, Reyes-Ramirez A, Aguillon M, Martinez A, Effect of repeated administration of Annona diversifolia Saff.(ilama) extracts and palmitone on rat amygdala kindling. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;16:590-595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.09.018
  45. Goyal M, Nagori BP, Sasmal D, Sedative and anticonvulsant effects of an alcoholic extract of Capparis deciduas. J Nat Med. 2009;63:375-379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-009-0339-3
  46. Grundmann O, Nakajima J, Kamata K, Seo S, Butterweck V, Kaempferol from the leaves of Apocynum veneturn possesses anxiolytic activities in the elevated plus maze test in mice. Phytomedicine.2009;16:295-302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2008.12.020
  47. Gupta M, Muzumdar UK, Chakrabrati S. CNS activities of methanolic extract of Moringa oleifera root in mice. Fitoterapia. 1999;70:244-250. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(99)00029-5
  48. Gupta YK, Sharma M, Chaudhary G. Antiepileptic activity of Panax ginseng against pentylenetetrazole induced kindling in rats. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2001;45:502-506.
  49. Hauser WA, Annegers JF, Kurland LT. Prevalence of epilepsy in Rochester, Minnesota: 1940-1980. Epilepsia. 1991;32:429-445. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1991.tb04675.x
  50. Hauser WA, Annegers JF. Epidemiology of Epilepsy. In Laidlam J. Richen A ad Chadwick D. ed. Textbook of epilepsy. Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh. 1993;23-45.
  51. Holmes GL. Critical issues in the treatment of epilepsy. Am J Hosp Pharm 1993;50:S5-S16.
  52. Hosseinzadeh H, Karimi GR, Rakhshanizadeh M. Anticonvulsant effect of Hypericum perforatum: role of nitric oxide. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;98:207-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.12.007
  53. Hosseinzadeh H, Parvardeh S. Anticonvulsant effects of thymoquinone, the major constituent of Nigella sativa seeds, in mice. Phytomedicine. 2004;11:56-64. https://doi.org/10.1078/0944-7113-00376
  54. Abe K, Saito H. Effects of saffron extract and its constituent crocin on learning behaviour and long-term potentiation. Phytother Res. 2000;14:149-152. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1573(200005)14:3<149::AID-PTR665>3.0.CO;2-5
  55. Huen MS, Leung JW, Ng W, Lui WS, Chan MN, Wong JT, Xue H. 5,7-Dihydroxy-6-methoxyflavone, a benzodiazepine site ligand isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, with selective antagonistic properties. Biochem Pharmacol. 2003;66:125-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-2952(03)00233-8
  56. Huguenard JR. Neuronal circuitry of thalamocortical epilepsy and mechanisms of antiabsence drug action. Adv Neurol. 1999;79:991-1000.
  57. Janahmadi M, Farajnia S, Vatanparast J, Abbasipour H, Kamalinejad M. The fruit essential oil of Pimpinella anisum L.(Umblliferae) induces neuronal hyperexcitability in snail partly through attenuation of after-hyperpolarization. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;120:360-365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.09.008
  58. Jawaid T, Argal S, Singh S. Botanicals and herbs: A traditional approach in treatment of epilepsy. J Pharm Res. 2011;4: 1138-1140.
  59. Kabir M, Iliyasu Z, Abubakar IS, Kabir ZS, Farinyaro AU. Knowledge. Attitude and Beliefs about epilepsy among adults in a northern Nigerian urban community. Annals of Afr Med. 2005;4:107-112.
  60. Kasture VS, Kasture SB, Chopde CT. Anticonvulsive activity of Butea monosperma flowers in laboratory animals. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2002;72:965-972. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(02)00815-8
  61. Katiyar C, Kumar A, Bhattacharya SK, Singh RS. Ayurvedic processed seeds of Nuxvomica: neuropharmacological and chemical evaluation. Fitoterapia. 2010;81:190-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2009.08.023
  62. Kavimani S, Iiango R, Madheswaran M, Jayakar B, Gupta M, Majumdar UK. Antitumor activity of plumbagin gainst dalton's ascitic lymphoma.2 Indian J Pharm Sci. 1996;58:194-196.
  63. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian Medicinal Plants. (Allahabad, India: Lalit Mohan Basu), pp. 1546-1549, 2003.
  64. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. 3. (Dehradun, India: International Book Distributors), 1998.
  65. Kritikar KR, Basu BD. Indian Med Plants. Vol. 2. (Dehradun, India: Shiva Publishers), 1993.
  66. Kulkarni S, Desai S. Immunostimulant activity of inulin isolated from Saussurea lappa roots. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2001;63:292-294.
  67. Maiha BB, Magaji MG, Yaro AH, Hamza AH, Ahmed ST and Magaji RA. Anticonvulsant Studies on Cochlospermum Tinctorium and Paullinia Pinnata Extracts in Laboratory Animals. Nig J Pharm Sci. 2009;8:102-108.
  68. Mattson RH. Efficacy and adverse effects of established and new antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia. 1995;36:S13-S26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1995.tb05995.x
  69. Miwa H, Iijima M, Tanaka S, Mizuno Y. Generalized convulsions after consuming a large amount of Gingko nuts. Epilepsia.2001;42:280-281.
  70. Mohanraj R, Brodie MJ. Measuring the efficacy of antiepileptic drugs. Seizure. 2003;12:413-443. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1059-1311(03)00047-5
  71. Muceniece R, Saleniece K, Krigere L, Rumaks J, Dzirkale Z, Mezhapuke R, Kviesis J, Mekss P, Klusa V, Schioth HB, Dambrova M. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) juice exerts an anticonvulsant effect in mice through binding to GABA receptors. Planta Med. 2008;74:491-496. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1074495
  72. Mishra N, Oraon A, Dev A, Jayaprakash V, Basu A, Pattnaik AK, Tripapthi SN, Akhtar M, Ahmad S, Swaroop S, Basu M. Anticonvulsant activity of Benkara malabarica (Linn.) root extract: In vitro and in vivo investigation. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;128;533-536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.01.042
  73. Nqo Bum E, Taiwe GS, Moto FC, Ngoupaye GT, Nkantchoua GC, Pelanken MM, Rakotonirina SV, Rakotonirina A. Anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, and sedative properties of the roots of Nauclea latifolia Smith in mice. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;15:434-440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.05.014
  74. Okokon JE, Nwafor PA, Antiulcer and anticonvulsant activity of Croton zambesicus. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2009;22;384-390.
  75. Oliveira FA, de Almeida RN, Sousa MF, Barbosa-Filho JM, Diniz SA, Medeiros IA. Anticonvulsant properties of N-salicyloyltryptamine in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2001;68:199-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(00)00484-6
  76. Pal D, Dutta S, Sarkar A. Evaluation of CNS activities of ethanol extract of roots and rhizomes of Cyperus rotundus in mice. Acta Pol Pharm. 2009;66:535-541.
  77. Pedersen ME, Vestergaard HT, Stafford GI, van Staden J, Jager AK. The effect of extracts of Searsia species on epileptiform activity in slices of the mouse cerebral cortex. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;119:538-541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.08.009
  78. Raza M, Shaheen F, Choudhary MI, Sambati S, Rafig A, Suria A, Atta-ur-Rahman, DeLorenzo, R J. Anticonvulsant activities of ethanolic extract and aqueous fraction isolated from Delphinium denudatum. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2001;78:73-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00327-0
  79. Reddy J, Gnanasekaran D, Vijay D, Ranganathan TV. In vitro studies on anti asthmatic, analgesic and anti convulsant activities of the medicinal plant Bryonia laciniosa. Linn. Inter J Drug Disc. 2010;2:1-10 https://doi.org/10.5138/ijdd.2010.0975.0215.02006
  80. Reza HM , Mohammad H, Golnaz E, Gholamreza S, Effect of methanolic extract of Hyoscymus niger L. on the seizure induced by picritoxin in mice. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2009;22:308-312.
  81. Rho JM, Sankar R. The pharmacologic basis of antiepileptic drug action. Epilepsia. 1999;40:1471-1483. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1999.tb02029.x
  82. Ribeiro RA, Leite JR. Nantenine alkaloid presents anticonvulsant effect on two classical animal models. Phytomedicine. 2003;10:563-568. https://doi.org/10.1078/094471103322331557
  83. Rogawski MA, Loscher W. The neurobiology of antiepileptic drugs. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2004;5:553-564. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1430
  84. Saini P, Kannapan N, Diwan A, Kumar P, Antil V, Sharma S, Singh S. Anticonvulsant activity of flower part of N. oderum. Inter J Pharma & Bio Sci. 2010;1:1-4.
  85. Sayyah M, Mandgary A, Kamalinejad M. Evaluation of the anticonvulsant activity of the seed acetone extract of Ferula gummosa Boiss. against seizures induced by pentylenetetrazole and electroconvulsive shock in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;82:105-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(02)00166-6
  86. Sayyah M, Valizadeh J, Kamalinejad M. Anticonvulsant activity of the leaf essential oil of Laurus nobilis against pentylenetetrazole- and maximal electroshock-induced seizures. Phytomedicine. 2002;9:212-216. https://doi.org/10.1078/0944-7113-00113
  87. Silva FO, Silva MG, Feng D, de Freitas RM. Evaluation of central nervous system effects of iso-6-cassine isolated from Senna spectabilis var. excelsa (Schrad) in mice, Fitoterapia. 2011;82:255-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2010.10.007
  88. Silva MR, Ximenes RM, da Costa JG, Leal LK, de Lopes AA, Viana GS, Comparative anticonvulsant activities of the essential oils (EOs) from Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt and Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf. in mice. Nau Schr Arch Pharm 2010;381:415-426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-010-0494-9
  89. Singh D, Goel RK. Anticonvulsant effect of Ficus religiosa: role of serotonergic pathways. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;123:330-334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.02.042
  90. Smith MC, Bleck TP. Convulsive Disorders: toxicity of anticonvulsants. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1991;14:97-115. https://doi.org/10.1097/00002826-199104000-00001
  91. Sridharan, R. Epidemiology of epilepsy. Current Science. 2002;82:664-670.
  92. Sumathy T, Subramanian S, Govindaswamy S, Balakrishna K, Veluchamy G. Protective role of Bacopa monniera on morphine induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Phytother Res. 2001;15:643-645. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1007
  93. Umukoro S, Aladeokin AC. Evaluation of the anti-stress and anticonvulsant activities of leaf extract of Alchornea cordifolia in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;127:768-770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.11.023
  94. Vasudevan M, Parle M. Antianmesic potential of Murraya koenigii leaves. Phytother Res. 2009;23:308-316. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.2620
  95. Visweswari G, Prasad KS, Chetan PS, Lokanatha V, Rajendra W. Evaluation of the anticonvulsant effect of Centella asiatica (gotu kola) in pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures with respect to cholinergic neurotransmission. Epilepsy Behav. 2010;17:332-335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2010.01.002
  96. Vyawahare NS, Bodhankar SL, Anticonvulsant Activity of Argyreia speciosa in Mice. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2009;71:131-134. https://doi.org/10.4103/0250-474X.54277
  97. Wagh RV, Antre RV, Oswal RJ, Nimje HM. Anticonvulsant Activity: An Overview. JPSBR 2011;1:142-147.
  98. Wahab A, UI Haq R, Ahmed A, Khan RA, Raza M. Anticonvulsant activities of nutmeg oil of Myristica fragrans. Phytother Res. 2009;23:153-158. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.2548
  99. Wang HH, Liao JF, Chen CF. Anticonvulsant effect of water extract of Scutellariae radix in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73:185-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00300-7
  100. Wannang NN, Annka JA, Kwanashie HO, Gyang SS, Auta A. Anti-seizure activity of the aqueous leaf extract of Solanum nigrurn linn (solanaceae) in experimental animals. Afr Health Sci. 2008;8:74-79.
  101. WHO. Epilepsy: aetiology, epidemiology and prognosis. 2001; Fact sheet No 165 http://www.who,int/inf-fs/en/fact165.htmI
  102. Wickenden AD. Potassium channels as antiepileptic drug targets. Neuropharmacol. 2002;43:1055-1060. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3908(02)00237-X
  103. Ya'u J, Yaro AH, Abubakar MS, Anuka JA, Hussaini IM. Anticonvulsant activity of Carissa edulis (Vahl) (Apocynaceae) root bark extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;120:255-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.08.029
  104. Yemitan OK, Adeyemi OO. CNS depressant activity of Lecaniodiscus cupanioides. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:412-418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2005.02.010
  105. Zhang Z, Lian XV, Li S, Stringer JL, Characterization of chemical ingredients and anticonvulsant activity of American skullcap (Scutellaria laterifIora). Phytomedicine. 2009;16:485-493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2008.07.011
  106. Zia A, Siddqui S, Begum S, Siddiqui S, Suria A. Studies on the constituents of the leaves of Nerium oleander on behavior pattern in mice. J Ethnopharmaco. 1995;49:33-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(95)01300-8