Understanding of Neural Mechanism of Mood Disorders : Focused on Neuroimaging Findings

기분장애 뇌신경기저에 대한 이해 : 뇌영상 연구를 중심으로

  • Kim, Yoo-Ra (Department of Psychiatry, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine) ;
  • Lee, Kyoung-Uk (Department of Psychiatry, The Catholic University of Korea College of Medicine)
  • 김유라 (가톨릭대학교 의과대학 정신과학교실) ;
  • 이경욱 (가톨릭대학교 의과대학 정신과학교실)
  • Received : 2011.01.10
  • Accepted : 2011.02.01
  • Published : 2011.02.28

Abstract

Mood disorder is unlikely to be a disease of a single brain region or a neurotransmitter system. Rather, it is now generally viewed as a multidimensional disorder that affects many neural pathways. Growing neuroimaging evidence suggests the anterior cingulate-pallidostriatal-thalamic-amygdala circuit as a putative cortico-limbic mood regulating circuit that may be dysfunctional in mood disorders. Brain-imaging techniques have shown increased activation of mood-generating limbic areas and decreased activation of cortical areas in major depressive disorder(MDD). Furthermore, the combination of functional abnormalities in limbic subcortical neural regions implicated in emotion processing together with functional abnormalities of prefrontal cortical neural regions probably result in the emotional lability and impaired ability to regulate emotion in bipolar disorder. Here we review the biological correlates of MDD and bipolar disorder as evidenced by neuroimaging paradigms, and interpret these data from the perspective of endophenotype. Despite possible limitations, we believe that the integration of neuroimaging research findings will significantly advance our understanding of affective neuroscience and provide novel insights into mood disorders.

Keywords

References

  1. Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62:617-627. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617
  2. Merikangas KR, Akiskal HS, Angst J, Greenberg PE, Hirschfeld RM, Petukhova M, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of bipolar spectrum disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:543-552. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.543
  3. Keller MB, Lavori PW, Mueller TI, Endicott J, Coryell W, Hirschfeld RM, et al. Time to recovery, chronicity, and levels of psychopathology in major depression. A 5-year prospective follow-up of 431 subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:809-816. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820100053010
  4. Backs-Dermott BJ, Dobson KS, Jones SL. An evaluation of an integrated model of relapse in depression. J Affect Disord 2010;124:60-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.11.015
  5. Post RM, Leverich GS. The role of psychosocial stress in the onset and progression of bipolar disorder and its comorbidities: the need for earlier and alternative modes of therapeutic intervention. Dev Psychopathol 2006;18:1181-1211.
  6. Weinberger MI, Mateo C, Sirey JA. Perceived barriers to mental health care and goal setting among depressed, community-dwelling older adults. Patient Prefer Adherence 2009;3:145-149.
  7. Hirschfeld RM, Vornik LA. Recognition and diagnosis of bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65 Suppl 15:5-9.
  8. Hirschfeld RM, Lewis L, Vornik LA. Perceptions and impact of bipolar disorder: how far have we really come? Results of the national depressive and manic-depressive association 2000 survey of individuals with bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64:161-174. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v64n0209
  9. Cloninger CR. The discovery of susceptibility genes for mental disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002;99:13365-13367. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.222532599
  10. Chakravarti A, Little P. Nature, nurture and human disease. Nature 2003;421:412-414. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01401
  11. Gatt JM, Clark CR, Kemp AH, Liddell BJ, Dobson-Stone C, Kuan SA, et al. A genotype-endophenotypephenotype path model of depressed mood: integrating cognitive and emotional markers. J Integr Neurosci 2007;6:75-104. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219635207001398
  12. Goodman M, New AS, Triebwasser J, Collins KA, Siever L. Phenotype, endophenotype, and genotype comparisons between borderline personality disorder and major depressive disorder. J Pers Disord 2010;24:38-59. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2010.24.1.38
  13. Hahn T, Marquand AF, Ehlis AC, Dresler T, Kittel-Schneider S, Jarczok TA, et al. Integrating Neurobiological Markers of Depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010.
  14. Sheline YI, Gado MH, Price JL. Amygdala core nuclei volumes are decreased in recurrent major depression. Neuroreport 1998;9:2023-2028. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-199806220-00021
  15. Mervaala E, Fohr J, Kononen M, Valkonen-Korhonen M, Vainio P, Partanen K, et al. Quantitative MRI of the hippocampus and amygdala in severe depression. Psychol Med 2000;30:117-125. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291799001567
  16. Shah PJ, Ebmeier KP, Glabus MF, Goodwin GM. Cortical grey matter reductions associated with treatmentresistant chronic unipolar depression. Controlled magnetic resonance imaging study. Br J Psychiatry 1998;172:527-532. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.172.6.527
  17. Bremner JD, Narayan M, Anderson ER, Staib LH, Miller HL, Charney DS. Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:115-118. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.157.1.115
  18. Greenwald BS, Kramer-Ginsberg E, Bogerts B, Ashtari M, Aupperle P, Wu H, et al. Qualitative magnetic resonance imaging findings in geriatric depression. Possible link between later-onset depression and Alzheimer's disease? Psychol Med 1997;27:421-431. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291796004576
  19. Keedwell PA, Andrew C, Williams SC, Brammer MJ, Phillips ML. The neural correlates of anhedonia in major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2005;58:843-853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.05.019
  20. Matthews SC, Strigo IA, Simmons AN, Yang TT, Paulus MP. Decreased functional coupling of the amygdala and supragenual cingulate is related to increased depression in unmedicated individuals with current major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord 2008;111:13-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.05.022
  21. Sabatinelli D, Fortune EE, Li Q, Siddiqui A, Krafft C, Oliver WT, et al. Emotional perception: meta-analyses of face and natural scene processing. Neuroimage 2011;54:2524-2533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.011
  22. Ohman A. The role of the amygdala in human fear: automatic detection of threat. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005;30:953-958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.03.019
  23. Winston JS, O'Doherty J, Dolan RJ. Common and distinct neural responses during direct and incidental processing of multiple facial emotions. Neuroimage 2003;20:84-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00303-3
  24. Gorno-Tempini ML, Pradelli S, Serafini M, Pagnoni G, Baraldi P, Porro C, et al. Explicit and incidental facial expression processing: an fMRI study. Neuroimage 2001;14:465-473. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0811
  25. Ochsner KN, Gross JJ. The cognitive control of emotion. Trends Cogn Sci 2005;9:242-249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010
  26. Phillips ML, Ladouceur CD, Drevets WC. A neural model of voluntary and automatic emotion regulation: implications for understanding the pathophysiology and neurodevelopment of bipolar disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2008;13:829, 833-857. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2008.65
  27. Carmichael ST, Price JL. Limbic connections of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex in macaque monkeys. J Comp Neurol 1995;363:615-641. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.903630408
  28. Coffey CE, Wilkinson WE, Weiner RD, Parashos IA, Djang WT, Webb MC, et al. Quantitative cerebral anatomy in depression. A controlled magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:7-16. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820130009002
  29. Drevets WC, Price JL, Simpson JR Jr, Todd RD, Reich T, Vannier M, et al. Subgenual prefrontal cortex abnormalities in mood disorders. Nature 1997;386:824-827. https://doi.org/10.1038/386824a0
  30. Rajkowska G, Miguel-Hidalgo JJ, Wei J, Dilley G, Pittman SD, Meltzer HY, et al. Morphometric evidence for neuronal and glial prefrontal cell pathology in major depression. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:1085-1098. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00041-4
  31. Elliott R, Baker SC, Rogers RD, O'Leary DA, Paykel ES, Frith CD, et al. Prefrontal dysfunction in depressed patients performing a complex planning task: a study using positron emission tomography. Psychol Med 1997;27:931-942. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291797005187
  32. Siegle GJ, Thompson W, Carter CS, Steinhauer SR, Thase ME. Increased amygdala and decreased dorsolateral prefrontal BOLD responses in unipolar depression: related and independent features. Biol Psychiatry 2007;61:198-209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.05.048
  33. Davidson RJ, Pizzagalli D, Nitschke JB, Putnam K. Depression: perspectives from affective neuroscience. Annu Rev Psychol 2002;53:545-574. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135148
  34. Bench CJ, Friston KJ, Brown RG, Frackowiak RS, Dolan RJ. Regional cerebral blood flow in depression measured by positron emission tomography: the relationship with clinical dimensions. Psychol Med 1993;23:579-590. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700025368
  35. Erk S, Mikschl A, Stier S, Ciaramidaro A, Gapp V, Weber B, et al. Acute and sustained effects of cognitive emotion regulation in major depression. J Neurosci 2010;30:15726-15734. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1856-10.2010
  36. Vasic N, Wolf RC, Walter H. [Executive functions in pa-tients with depression. The role of prefrontal activation]. Nervenarzt 2007;78:628, 630-632, 634-636 passim.
  37. Rice F. Genetics of childhood and adolescent depression: insights into etiological heterogeneity and challenges for future genomic research. Genome Med 2010;2:68. https://doi.org/10.1186/gm189
  38. Kendler KS, Prescott CA. A population-based twin study of lifetime major depression in men and women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:39-44. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.56.1.39
  39. Rice F, Harold G, Thapar A. The genetic aetiology of childhood depression: a review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2002;43:65-79. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00004
  40. Hammen C, Burge D, Burney E, Adrian C. Longitudinal study of diagnoses in children of women with unipolar and bipolar affective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:1112-1117. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810240032006
  41. Chen MC, Hamilton JP, Gotlib IH. Decreased hippocampal volume in healthy girls at risk of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010;67:270-276. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.202
  42. Baare WF, Vinberg M, Knudsen GM, Paulson OB, Langkilde AR, Jernigan TL, et al. Hippocampal volume changes in healthy subjects at risk of unipolar depression. J Psychiatr Res 2010;44:655-662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.12.009
  43. Amico F, Meisenzahl E, Koutsouleris N, Reiser M, Moller HJ, Frodl T. Structural MRI correlates for vulnerability and resilience to major depressive disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2011;36:15-22. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.090186
  44. Nolan CL, Moore GJ, Madden R, Farchione T, Bartoi M, Lorch E, et al. Prefrontal cortical volume in childhood-onset major depression: preliminary findings. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002;59:173-179. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.59.2.173
  45. van der Veen FM, Evers EA, Deutz NE, Schmitt JA. Effects of acute tryptophan depletion on mood and facial emotion perception related brain activation and performance in healthy women with and without a family history of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007;32:216-224. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301212
  46. Gotlib IH, Hamilton JP, Cooney RE, Singh MK, Henry ML, Joormann J. Neural processing of reward and loss in girls at risk for major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010;67:380-387. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.13
  47. Vythilingam M, Heim C, Newport J, Miller AH, Anderson E, Bronen R, et al. Childhood trauma associated with smaller hippocampal volume in women with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:2072-2080. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.12.2072
  48. van Harmelen AL, van Tol MJ, van der Wee NJ, Veltman DJ, Aleman A, Spinhoven P, et al. Reduced medial prefrontal cortex volume in adults reporting childhood emotional maltreatment. Biol Psychiatry 2010;68:832-838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.011
  49. Keyes CL, Myers JM, Kendler KS. The structure of the genetic and environmental influences on mental wellbeing. Am J Public Health 2010;100:2379-2384. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2010.193615
  50. Papadakis AA, Prince RP, Jones NP, Strauman TJ. Selfregulation, rumination, and vulnerability to depression in adolescent girls. Dev Psychopathol 2006;18:815-829.
  51. Pietrzak RH, Johnson DC, Goldstein MB, Malley JC, Rivers AJ, Morgan CA, et al. Psychosocial buffers of traumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and psychosocial difficulties in veterans of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom: the role of resilience, unit support, and postdeployment social support. J Spec Oper Med 2009;9:74-78.
  52. Spijker J, de Graaf R, Oldehinkel AJ, Nolen WA, Ormel J. Are the vulnerability effects of personality and psychosocial functioning on depression accounted for by subthreshold symptoms? Depress Anxiety 2007;24:472-478. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20252
  53. Cremers HR, Demenescu LR, Aleman A, Renken R, van Tol MJ, van der Wee NJ, et al. Neuroticism modulates amygdala-prefrontal connectivity in response to negative emotional facial expressions. Neuroimage 2010;49:963-970. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.08.023
  54. Canli T, Zhao Z, Desmond JE, Kang E, Gross J, Gabrieli JD. An fMRI study of personality influences on brain reactivity to emotional stimuli. Behav Neurosci 2001;115:33-42. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.115.1.33
  55. Gottesman II, Gould TD. The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: etymology and strategic intentions. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:636-645. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.636
  56. Chen CH, Ridler K, Suckling J, Williams S, Fu CH, Merlo-Pich E, et al. Brain imaging correlates of depressive symptom severity and predictors of symptom improvement after antidepressant treatment. Biol Psychiatry 2007;62:407-414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.09.018
  57. Mayberg HS, Brannan SK, Tekell JL, Silva JA, Mahurin RK, McGinnis S, et al. Regional metabolic effects of fluoxetine in major depression: serial changes and relationship to clinical response. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:830-843. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(00)01036-2
  58. Ritchey M, Dolcos F, Eddington KM, Strauman TJ, Cabeza R. Neural correlates of emotional processing in depression: Changes with cognitive behavioral therapy and predictors of treatment response. J Psychiatr Res 2010.
  59. Anand A, Li Y, Wang Y, Wu J, Gao S, Bukhari L, et al. Antidepressant effect on connectivity of the mood-regulating circuit: an FMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005;30:1334-1344. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300725
  60. Schaefer HS, Putnam KM, Benca RM, Davidson RJ. Event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging measures of neural activity to positive social stimuli in pre- and post-treatment depression. Biol Psychiatry 2006;60:974-986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.024
  61. Henry TR, Bakay RA, Votaw JR, Pennell PB, Epstein CM, Faber TL, et al. Brain blood flow alterations induced by therapeutic vagus nerve stimulation in partial epilepsy: I. Acute effects at high and low levels of stimulation. Epilepsia 1998;39:983-990. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1998.tb01448.x
  62. Herbsman T, Avery D, Ramsey D, Holtzheimer P, Wadjik C, Hardaway F, et al. More lateral and anterior prefrontal coil location is associated with better repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation antidepressant response. Biol Psychiatry 2009;66:509-515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.04.034
  63. Gong Q, Wu Q, Scarpazza C, Lui S, Jia Z, Marquand A, et al. Prognostic prediction of therapeutic response in depression using high-field MR imaging. Neuroimage 2010.
  64. Keedwell PA, Drapier D, Surguladze S, Giampietro V, Brammer M, Phillips M. Subgenual cingulate and visual cortex responses to sad faces predict clinical outcome during antidepressant treatment for depression. J Affect Disord 2010;120:120-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.04.031
  65. Wagner G, Koch K, Schachtzabel C, Sobanski T, Reichenbach JR, Sauer H, et al. Differential effects of serotonergic and noradrenergic antidepressants on brain activity during a cognitive control task and neurofunctional prediction of treatment outcome in patients with depression. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2010;35:247-257. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.090081
  66. Farb NA, Anderson AK, Mayberg H, Bean J, McKeon D, Segal ZV. Minding one's emotions: mindfulness training alters the neural expression of sadness. Emotion 2010;10:25-33. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017151
  67. Illes J, Lombera S, Rosenberg J, Arnow B. In the mind's eye: provider and patient attitudes on functional brain imaging. J Psychiatr Res 2008;43:107-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.02.008
  68. Phillips ML, Frank E. Redefining bipolar disorder: toward DSM-V. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:1135-1136. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.7.1135
  69. Yurgelun-Todd DA, Gruber SA, Kanayama G, Killgore WD, Baird AA, Young AD. fMRI during affect discrimination in bipolar affective disorder. Bipolar Disord 2000;2:237-248. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-5618.2000.20304.x
  70. Ketter TA, Kimbrell TA, George MS, Dunn RT, Speer AM, Benson BE, et al. Effects of mood and subtype on cerebral glucose metabolism in treatment-resistant bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2001;49:97-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00975-6
  71. Caligiuri MP, Brown GG, Meloy MJ, Eberson SC, Kindermann SS, Frank LR, et al. An fMRI study of affective state and medication on cortical and subcortical brain regions during motor performance in bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 2003;123:171-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-4927(03)00075-1
  72. Robinson JL, Monkul ES, Tordesillas-Gutierrez D, Franklin C, Bearden CE, Fox PT, et al. Fronto-limbic circuitry in euthymic bipolar disorder: evidence for prefrontal hyperactivation. Psychiatry Res 2008;164:106-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.12.004
  73. Lennox BR, Jacob R, Calder AJ, Lupson V, Bullmore ET. Behavioural and neurocognitive responses to sad facial affect are attenuated in patients with mania. Psychol Med 2004;34:795-802. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291704002557
  74. Malhi GS, Lagopoulos J, Sachdev P, Mitchell PB, Ivanovski B, Parker GB. Cognitive generation of affect in hypomania: an fMRI study. Bipolar Disord 2004;6:271-285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2004.00123.x
  75. Chen CH, Lennox B, Jacob R, Calder A, Lupson V, Bisbrown-Chippendale R, et al. Explicit and implicit facial affect recognition in manic and depressed States of bipolar disorder: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 2006;59:31-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.06.008
  76. Lagopoulos J, Malhi GS. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of emotional Stroop in euthymic bipolar disorder. Neuroreport 2007;18:1583-1587. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e3282efa07a
  77. Kronhaus DM, Lawrence NS, Williams AM, Frangou S, Brammer MJ, Williams SC, et al. Stroop performance in bipolar disorder: further evidence for abnormalities in the ventral prefrontal cortex. Bipolar Disord 2006;8:28-39.
  78. Hassel S, Almeida JR, Kerr N, Nau S, Ladouceur CD, Fissell K, et al. Elevated striatal and decreased dorsolateral prefrontal cortical activity in response to emotional stimuli in euthymic bipolar disorder: no associations with psychotropic medication load. Bipolar Disord 2008;10:916-927. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00641.x
  79. Malhi GS, Lagopoulos J, Owen AM, Ivanovski B, Shnier R, Sachdev P. Reduced activation to implicit affect induction in euthymic bipolar patients: an fMRI study. J Affect Disord 2007;97:109-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2006.06.005
  80. Van der Schot A, Kahn R, Ramsey N, Nolen W, Vink M. Trait and state dependent functional impairments in bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 2010;184:135-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.07.009
  81. Cabeza R, Nyberg L. Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. J Cogn Neurosci 2000;12:1-47.
  82. Altshuler L, Bookheimer S, Proenza MA, Townsend J, Sabb F, Firestine A, et al. Increased amygdala activation during mania: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:1211-1213. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.6.1211
  83. Kruger S, Alda M, Young LT, Goldapple K, Parikh S, Mayberg HS. Risk and resilience markers in bipolar disorder: brain responses to emotional challenge in bipolar patients and their healthy siblings. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:257-264. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.2.257
  84. Mah L, Zarate CA Jr, Singh J, Duan YF, Luckenbaugh DA, Manji HK, et al. Regional cerebral glucose metabolic abnormalities in bipolar II depression. Biol Psychiatry 2007;61:765-775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.009
  85. Phillips ML, Drevets WC, Rauch SL, Lane R. Neurobiology of emotion perception II: Implications for major psychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2003;54:515-528. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00171-9
  86. Altshuler LL, Bookheimer SY, Townsend J, Proenza MA, Eisenberger N, Sabb F, et al. Blunted activation in orbitofrontal cortex during mania: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 2005;58:763-769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.09.012
  87. Keener MT, Phillips ML. Neuroimaging in bipolar disorder: a critical review of current findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2007;9:512-520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-007-0070-2
  88. Lawrence NS, Williams AM, Surguladze S, Giampietro V, Brammer MJ, Andrew C, et al. Subcortical and ventral prefrontal cortical neural responses to facial expressions distinguish patients with bipolar disorder and major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2004;55:578-587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.11.017
  89. Killgore WD, Gruber SA, Yurgelun-Todd DA. Abnormal corticostriatal activity during fear perception in bipolar disorder. Neuroreport 2008;19:1523-1527. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e328310af58
  90. Holsboer F. Unipolar versus bipolar disorder: a distinction not helpful for studies of causality. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2005;7:405-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-005-0059-7
  91. Phillips ML, Drevets WC, Rauch SL, Lane R. Neurobiology of emotion perception I: The neural basis of normal emotion perception. Biol Psychiatry 2003;54:504-514. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00168-9
  92. Lazarus RS. Cognition and motivation in emotion. Am Psychol 1991;46:352-367. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.352
  93. Liu X, Akula N, Skup M, Brotman MA, Leibenluft E, McMahon FJ. A genome-wide association study of amygdala activation in youths with and without bipolar disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2010;49:33-41.
  94. Pavuluri MN, Passarotti AM, Harral EM, Sweeney JA. An fMRI study of the neural correlates of incidental versus directed emotion processing in pediatric bipolar disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009;48:308-319. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181948fc7
  95. Forbes EE, Christopher May J, Siegle GJ, Ladouceur CD, Ryan ND, Carter CS, et al. Reward-related decision- making in pediatric major depressive disorder: an fMRI study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2006;47:1031-1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01673.x
  96. Chan SW, Norbury R, Goodwin GM, Harmer CJ. Risk for depression and neural responses to fearful facial expressions of emotion. Br J Psychiatry 2009;194:139-145. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.047993
  97. Liu Z, Xu C, Xu Y, Wang Y, Zhao B, Lv Y, et al. Decreased regional homogeneity in insula and cerebellum: a resting-state fMRI study in patients with major depression and subjects at high risk for major depression. Psychiatry Res 2010;182:211-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.03.004
  98. Fortier E, Noreau A, Lepore F, Boivin M, Perusse D, Rouleau GA, et al. Early impact of 5-HTTLPR polymorphism on the neural correlates of sadness. Neurosci Lett 2010;485:261-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2010.09.026
  99. Admon R, Lubin G, Stern O, Rosenberg K, Sela L, Ben-Ami H, et al. Human vulnerability to stress depends on amygdala's predisposition and hippocampal plasticity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009;106:14120-14125. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0903183106
  100. Goldin PR, McRae K, Ramel W, Gross JJ. The neural bases of emotion regulation: reappraisal and suppression of negative emotion. Biol Psychiatry 2008;63:577-586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.031
  101. Schwartz CE, Kunwar PS, Greve DN, Moran LR, Viner JC, Covino JM, et al. Structural differences in adult orbital and ventromedial prefrontal cortex predicted by infant temperament at 4 months of age. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010;67:78-84. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.171